Introduction

Castor Bean, or Castor Oil Plant, Ricinus communis, is a member of the monotypic genus Ricinus of the Euphorbiaceae family. It is an aggressive invasive perennial around the world, and the subtropical and tropical Americas are no exception. Castor Bean is an extremely widespread weed throughout Mexico and is also quite common throughout the southern USA. It also grows into the temperate northeastern corner of the USA, showing that it is more than capable of one day invading the Pacific Northwest and southern Canada, even though so far, it has not been reported there. The seeds of the Castor Oil plant are extremely toxic, so much so that the ingestion of even 3 or 4 seeds can cause severe gastrointestinal distress and, in some cases, even death.

Description of Ricinus communis

Ricinus communis Leaves & Stems

Castor Oil Plant grows from 1 – 5 m tall from a large taproot with several lateral roots.

It is a somewhat woody perennial shrub in tropical and subtropical climates but can behave as a herbaceous annual in temperate climates. It has a large woody hollow stem that is often purplish and covered with white powdery wax, along with the petioles and often the leaves. The stems and branches have conspicuous nodes and ring-like scars.

Leaves are arranged alternately on the stems, and at their bases are stipules 1 – 3 cm long that unite into a sheathing bud. The round leaf stalks (petioles) are 3 – 50 cm long and support very large palmate leaves with 5 – 9 lobes that are united at the bottom, with the petiole being placed just off-center (peltate) on the backside of the leaf. Leaf blades are irregularly toothed (serrated) and are very large, from 10 – 70 cm across.

Ricinus communis Flowers & Fruits

It is a monoecious plant with separate male and female flowers on the same plant.

Flowers appear in erect terminal panicles up to 40 cm long. The male flowers are located on the base of the panicle, with the female flowers located at the top of the panicle. The male flowers lack petals and sepals and are made of clusters of many stamens in branched bundles.

The female flowers lack petals but possess sepals, but they fall off early (caducous). They have a superior soft spiny ovary with 3 styles that are red or green and are 2 cleft (divided).

Fruits are ellipsoid or sub-globose and 15 – 25 mm long. They are green when young and turn brown when mature. They are usually covered in conspicuous spines but occasionally are smooth.

The fruits hold ellipsoid seeds 9 – 17 mm long that are brittle and mottled brown with a caruncle located at the base. The seeds are extremely toxic and can be lethal, even if ingested in small quantities.

Ricinus communis Toxicity

The seeds of Ricinus communis are extremely toxic. They are one of the most potent natural biological toxins known to man. This is due to the presence of an albumin called ricin. The ingestion of just a few seeds can cause severe gastroenteritis, dehydration, liver or kidney damage, and even death.

Similar Species Frequently Confused With

There are no other species in the Ricinus genus, but there are several unrelated plants that, at first glance, are often confused with Ricinus communis. However, as none are related, they can easily be differentiated by their flowers and fruits but also as follows:

• Kalopanax septemlobus is a member of the Araliaceae family. While it is native to Asia, it has been introduced to the northeastern USA. It has similar-looking leaves but its stems are covered with very long spines, and the plant reaches heights of 30 m. Its flowers have 4 or 5 petals, and they grow in umbels.
• Tetrapanax papyrifer is native to Taiwan but has been introduced along the east and west coasts of North America and central Mexico. It grows to similar heights and has large palmate leaves, but its palmate leaves’ lobes are also divided, unlike Ricinus communis. Its flowers are produced in large umbels at the top of the plant, and the flowers have 4 or 5 petals.
• Carica papaya Papaya is native to Mesoamerica but has been widely introduced into northern Mexico and the southern USA for its edible fruit. When not in fruit, it can be differentiated by its more succulent than woody and usually unbranched stem. Its large palmate leaves are also clustered near the top of the plant, and the base is deeply cordate, not united with a peltate attachment as in Castor.
• Fatsia japonica Japanese Aralia has been introduced along the east and west coasts of North America and possibly into Mexico. It grows to similar heights with palmate leaves, but its bases are not united and do not have a peltate attachment to its petioles. They produce umbels of bisexual flowers that possess both petals and sepals.
• Cnidoscolus aconitifolius or Mala Mujer (Bad Woman) is native to Mesoamerica but has also been introduced into northern Mexico, Florida, and sporadically throughout the southern USA. It can be distinguished by its large palmate leaves that only have 3-5 lobes. It is also monecious, but its flowers are small and white.
• Jatropha gossypifolia is native from Mexico to South America but has been introduced to the southern USA. It is a smaller plant with smaller leaves 7-15 cm wide with a cordate base. It also produces flowers with purple to reddish petals.
• Manihot esculenta Cassava is native to South America but has been widely introduced throughout the sub and tropical Americas as a food plant. It usually grows to only 2 m, and its palmate leaves have only 3-5 lobes that usually have smooth edges or minutely toothed at most. Its fruit is a six-angled globose capsule.

Native Distribution of Ricinus communis

The castor plant is native to northeastern Africa but has naturalized throughout Africa, some of which may have been naturally spread, and others were aided by humans as far back as the stone age.

Habitat Types Where Ricinus communis is Found

In its native environment, Ricinus communis grows naturally in any disturbed habitat. It has a wide ecological tolerance allowing it to adapt to a multitude of conditions.

Castor Bean tolerates a wide range of soil conditions from acidic to alkaline, heavy to light, including infertile soils and shallow soils.

Its moisture requirements are moderate, and it can easily tolerate extended drought and even some inundation as long as the soil drains readily and is not submerged for extended periods of time.

Ricinus communis also tolerates a wide range of temperatures. It will survive -15 C in the winter and tolerates temperatures of 35 C in the summer.

Human Uses of Castor Bean or Castor Oil Plant

Ricinus communis has a long history of use by people. It has been cultivated for its oil for at least 6000 years, with the earliest recorded use in ancient Egypt.

The plant is used as an ornamental and botanical curiosity due to its enormous size. The oil was used both medicinally and for illumination before the use of other fuels, candles, and electricity became widespread.

Medicinally, Castor Oil is used as a purge internally as well as a cure-all in smaller doses for numerous internal ailments. Externally it is used for a variety of sores and skin conditions.

Castor Oil is also used in cosmetics, soap making, foods, as a lubricant, in paints, plastic, and linoleum. The press cake is poisonous and cannot be fed to animals, but it is often used as a fertilizer or fuel.

Distribution of Ricinus communis in North America

The species was first brought to North America in the 1700s. By 1760 it was documented as naturalized in Florida.

In Canada, Ricinus communis has not yet been recorded.

In the USA, Castor Bean has been recorded throughout many southern states, including California, Arizona, Utah, Kansas, Texas, Missouri, Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia, Florida, and North and South Carolina. It is also found in the northeastern states of Illinois, Michigan, Ohio, Virginia, Delaware, Maryland, New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, Massachusetts, and New Hampshire. It is also found in Hawaii.

In Mexico, Ricinus communis has been reported in every state. It is particularly abundant on the east and west coasts and in south-central Mexico. It is less common in the northern desert states but has still been reported in those locations.

Castor Bean has been introduced on every continent except Antarctica and is even widespread throughout the Pacific Islands. It is a global problem.

How Castor Bean Spreads

It is primarily spread through long distances by deliberate human introductions as an ornamental or for its industrial uses.

Short-distance dispersal occurs through the explosive release of mature seeds from the fruits.

Humans also aid in short-distance dispersal by spreading seeds in garden waste, soils, and vehicles.

Habitats at Risk of Invasion in North America

Due to its wide range of ecological tolerances, many habitats are at risk of invasion, particularly any habitat with disturbance. This means that anywhere humans develop, the land is at risk of invasion.

In addition to developed areas, it also invades grasslands, heathlands, riparian communities, and farmland. It is also commonly found on roadsides and in waste areas.

It is often a primary invader of recently burned lands.

In Spain, it has even invaded sand dunes, whereas it was previously thought unable to survive in permanently arid areas.

The only habitats not thought to currently be at risk are permanent wetlands, dense old-growth forests, and alpine habitats.

Potential Benefits of Invasion

Since Ricinus communis is extremely toxic, it provides no real wildlife value.

It also reduces biodiversity where it invades.

There are no known benefits of its invasion other than the occasional native bee that may visit its flowers.

Methods to Remove Ricinus communis

As always, prevention is the preferred method of control. It, like most invasive species, is still widely sold online and in some local garden stores. Do not buy or transport any, and do not plant them in your yard.

If you see them being sold online or in your local garden stores, please inform them of their invasive status and ask them to do their part and cease selling them. Ask them to instead sell more native species as ecologically friendly garden alternatives to invasive species.

Physical Control of Castor Bean

Once already established, however, physical control is always the most effective means. Physical control is labor-intensive and time-consuming, but it usually causes the least amount of environmental damage.

The best time to remove Ricinus communis is while the plants are still small enough to pull out by hand. Due to the plant’s toxicity, gloves should be worn even when the plant is young. Pulling young plants when the soil is moist, and the roots cling less tightly to the soil is ideal. Sometimes even medium-sized plants can be pulled by hand from moist soil.

If the soil is dry or the plants are larger, weed pullers can be useful in removing more stubborn plants. Try to get as much of the root and crown as possible to help prevent resprouting. This is especially important when the soil is dry, as the root system will often break rather than give to the pulling.

With larger plants or colonies, you will need to cut the above-ground growth down, then dig out the individual crowns or cultivate the soil repeatedly with a machine for large colonies. This will help prevent any regeneration.

Burning is not recommended as a means of control as Castor Bean is a quick regenerator on burned sites, and burning may encourage rather than discourage its growth.

Disposal of the Shrubs Once Removed

If you have plants that have seeds on them, they must either be burned or solarized. Solarizing is usually best with Ricinus communis.

However, sometimes with large patches burning is more efficient for disposing of large amounts of plant matter rather than solarizing. If burning, be aware of their ability to regenerate rapidly from seed after a fire. If the fire does not attain sufficient heat, there will be a surge in seedlings not long after the fire. The area will need ongoing monitoring to deal with seedlings as they emerge.

Otherwise, to solarize, put the shrubs under a thick black tarp or into thick black garbage bags. Then leave them in the full sun for a good 8 – 10 weeks at least to be sure that all seeds are no longer viable. Many sources recommend shorter solarization periods. However, success depends on latitude, sun exposure, daytime high temperatures, and other factors that make shorter time periods prone to failure. Leaving invasive species to solarize as long as possible is always the best. Then they can be disposed of in a landfill, but be sure to inform them of their invasive status so they can be dealt with accordingly.

Chemical Control of Castor Oil Plant

Chemical applications are almost never an ideal method of control for any invasive species. That is because chemical alteration of the environment often makes the environment more suitable for invasive species than native species. Furthermore, it is often difficult to keep the chemical control method contained so that it does not directly affect any native species that are there during the application process itself. As a result, plots where chemical control is used usually show a decrease in species richness. On the other hand, in plots where only physical control is used, species riches significantly increases.

Furthermore, there are no chemical control methods that effectively target only Ricinus communis.

Chemical control is not recommended.

Biological Control of Ricinus communis

Biological control involves the use of a predator, herbivore, disease, or some other agent to control an invasive species once it is established in the environment. The problem with biological control is that the agent used must be entirely specific to only the target organism before releasing it into the environment. This is often difficult to determine since the agent of control is also usually not native to the environment and could behave differently when released there. Take the example of the mongoose and the rat. The mongoose was released in Hawaii in the late 1800s to help control the rat. To this day there are still rats in Hawaii, but the mongoose has helped to decimate many native bird populations.

Biological control methods are extremely risky and should only be carried out by professionals after years of rigorous study. The use of biological control methods can never be used alone. They must be part of an integrated pest management approach.

Because Ricinus communis is cultivated as a crop, no biological control methods are being developed for it. It is, however, prone to several pests and diseases, including mung moth, pink bollworm, seedling blight, rust spot, leaf spot, gray mold, stem canker, leaf blight, and bacterial wilt. However, these all affect other crops as well, so none are being developed to control Castor Bean.

Integrated Pest Management & Ongoing Monitoring

Integrated management is always the best approach. In its simplest and least impactful form, this involves physical removal methods, possibly biological control methods, replanting, and ongoing monitoring. Integrated management is required because the area needs to be monitored for returning sprouts or seedlings. Otherwise, all the hard work done in removal could be wasted if the invasive species is allowed to regrow.

Replanting With Native Species is Crucial

In many cases of removal, the site will need to be replanted immediately. This is because the bare soil will allow the seed bank to germinate and reinvade the patch they were removed from. Removal of single isolated individuals does not require replanting but the removal of a patch will. A replanting program should already be planned and ready to implement immediately upon the removal of the Castor Bean.

Ongoing Monitoring is Essential

In all cases of invasive Ricinus communis removal, ongoing monitoring is absolutely essential. Yearly monitoring programs should be put in place to ensure that any surviving individuals are removed so that the population is not able to recover. This is required whether the area is replanted or not.

If seedlings are allowed to emerge unchecked, the invasive Castor Bean will simply re-invade and take over before the native species are able to grow back in their place. Removal of young plants by physical means is always the easiest and most effective means of control.

References and Resources

CABI on Ricinus communis https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/47618

Canadensys Plant Search https://data.canadensys.net/vascan/search

Dictionary of Botanical Terms – Lyrae’s Nature Blog Dictionary of Botanical Terms

Eflora Plants of North America http://www.efloras.org/browse.aspx?flora_id=1

iNaturalist Plant Search https://www.inaturalist.org/home

USDA Plants Database https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov/home

Willis, Lyrae (Unpublished).  Plant Families of North America.

Currently Seeking Funding To Continue This Non-Profit, Ad-Free Work

If you are able to donate so that I can continue this non-profit work of supplying people with scientific information on the plant families, native plants, and invasive species found throughout North America, please donate using the GoFundMe link below. Thank you!

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Introduction

Ilex aquifolium goes by several common names, including English Holly, European Holly, Common Holly, and Christmas Holly. It is a highly invasive plant in the moist climates of North America, particularly on the west coast, where it is beginning to dominate the understory of some forest ecosystems. Despite this, it is still widely sold in stores throughout this region.

I grew up on the coast of BC, Canada, and remember finding it all the time under the canopy of the forest. I recently returned to the coast and spent some time there and was horrified by the amount it appears to be spreading and replacing our native understory species. In a single forest walk, I managed to pull out about 40 immature plants from the forest canopy. There were several larger ones I could not pull out by hand due to their deep and aggressive root system.

Next time I return to the coast and go for a forest walk, I will be sure to bring a trowel or a small shovel. Do your part on your forest walks and pull out any small holly shrubs you find growing before they get large and too difficult to remove. Just make sure you are not pulling Oregon Grape or native hollies if you live on the east coast; see Similar Species below for more information.

Description of Ilex aquifolium

Leaves & Stems of Ilex aquifolium

Common Holly is a slow-growing evergreen perennial shrub or small tree that grows from 5-25 m tall. However, it usually only grows to the shorter 5-10 m shrub height. It may grow from a single trunk, or it may be multi-stemmed. Their trunks are usually less than 40 cm in diameter. Larger trunks can be from 40-80 cm in diameter, but they rarely exceed 100 cm. The bark is green when young but turns grey when it matures. While specimens as old as 500 years have been reported, it seldom lives longer than 100 years.

The leaves of English Holly are arranged alternately on the branches. They are tough, thick, and glossy green and measure 3-12 cm long and 2-6 cm wide. The margins are often characteristically undulate (wavy) and toothed with spiny tipped teeth. Sometimes the leaf margins are smooth, particularly on older specimens.

Flowers & Fruits of Ilex aquifolium

English Holly is a dioecious plant meaning that there are separate male and female plants. The flowers are whitish and have 4 petals and 4 sepals that are both fused near their base. In males, the flowers are usually more yellowish and appear in axillary groups (in clusters in the leaf axils). Female specimens have single flowers or in groups of three, and the flowers or white or somewhat pink. The male and female shrubs are impossible to tell apart until they begin to flower from 4 – 12 years of age.

Fruits are small red or yellow drupes, berry-like in appearance, and only grow on female plants. They are 6-10 mm in diameter. Each drupe contains 3-4 small stony seeds.

Toxicity of Ilex aquifolium

The drupes are toxic to humans and pets, causing vomiting and diarrhea, but they are generally not lethal. Birds typically eat them later in the winter after the frosts have softened them and made them less bitter; they are immune to their toxic effects.

Similar Species Ilex aquifolium is Frequently Confused With

There are a few other plant genera that have similar leaves to Ilex aquifolium. The Oregon-Grape genus Berberis of which we have a few native species growing in North America have evergreen spiny-toothed leaves, but their leaves are opposite rather than alternate, and they have blue-colored berries rather than red or yellow drupes. Osmanthus heterophyllus or Holly Olive is a member of the olive family native to Europe that also has similar leaves and has been introduced in the USA. Holly Olive differs from true hollies by its opposite rather than alternate leaves and bark that turns grayish to blackish with age and has a characteristic cracking pattern to it.

The other Ilex species can be distinguished as follows:

• Ilex opaca American Holly – native to the eastern and south-central USA. It has matte yellowish-green leaves that are seldom glossy, as in Ilex aquifolium. Its trunk is grey with wart-like bumps, and its mature branches turn brown rather than grey. It also grows more of a tree than a shrub, with trunk diameters commonly of 50 cm and up to 120 cm in diameter.
• Ilex cornuta Chinese Holly – native to China but widely introduced throughout the eastern and south-central USA. It has more rectangular-shaped leaves with only 5 (4) spines, but they are glossy green like Ilex aquifolium. Chinese Holly never grows to tree size, it rarely exceeds 3 m in height, and its drupes are larger than European Holly. The bark is smooth and grey but becomes flaky with age.
• Ilex vomitoria Yaupon Holly – native to southeastern North America. It is a small tree or shrub with glossy green leaves, but the leaves are much smaller and are not spiny. Instead, the leaves have crenate or coarsely serrated margins.

Native Distribution of Ilex aquifolium

European or Common Holly is native to western and southern Europe, northwest Africa, and southwest Asia.

Habitat Types Where European Holly is Found

European or Common Holly is typically found growing under forest canopies, oak, and beech, especially in its native range. It typically requires moist and shady environments, making it particularly suitable as an undergrowth species in any moist forest. Also, it is common on moist and shady slopes, cliffs, and mountain gorges. Sometimes, however, it can also form dense thickets in more open fields and meadows. It is a rugged pioneer species that can tolerate both frosts and droughts.

Human Uses of Common Holly

European or Common Holly is widely used as an ornamental shrub or small tree in gardens. It is also extremely popular in Christmas decorations, where it is put in wreaths, garlands, and various other displays.

In traditional European herbal medicine, the leaves of Ilex aquifolium were used as a diuretic, to treat fevers, and as a laxative. It is seldom used in modern herbal medicine, however, and its berries are considered toxic, so the plant should be used with caution.

Distribution of Ilex aquifolium in North America

In Canada, Ilex aquifolium has been recorded as introduced in BC and possibly in Ontario. It is becoming particularly invasive in coastal BC.

In the USA, English Holly is found in Washington, Oregon, and California in the west and Virginia and New Jersey in the east. It has also been introduced in Hawaii. According to iNaturalist, it is located in many more states, but many may still be in cultivation, and some could be native Ilex spp that have been misidentified.

In Mexico, Ilex aquifolium has not yet been reported so far.

English Holly has been introduced on every continent. It seems particularly bad in New Zealand, Tasmania, and North America.

How English Holly Spreads

It is primarily spread long-distance by deliberate human introductions as an ornamental species in gardens.

Short-distance dispersal occurs through birds that eat the abundant drupes later in winter after they have softened and their taste improves. They spread the seeds through their feces, where the seeds then germinate in any suitable habitat in both shade and sun.

English Holly also spreads readily vegetatively through suckering. This is how most of the thickets of Common Holly form and how it becomes a dominant understory species of the forests.

Habitats at Risk of Invasion in North America

The way that English Holly spreads through the feces of birds puts all habitats at risk providing there is enough moisture. They will not grow in permanently wet wetlands, and they also will not grow in arid or semi-arid areas. Any moderately moist to the wet climate, however, is at risk of invasion.

Their ability to grow in both sun and shade makes them a common invader of forests in particular but also roadsides, fields, meadows, cliffs, gorges, and anywhere else as long as there is ample moisture.

European Holly has proven to be particularly invasive in the temperate rainforests of northwestern North America, where it easily invades the mixed forest canopies and thrives in the moist environment there.

Impacts of Invasion

Ilex aquifolium has deep and aggressive roots that tend to out-compete the native species for nutrients and water. There is also evidence that English Holly alters the soil conditions by adding sulfur and large amounts of organic matter to the soil, which makes the conditions less hospitable for native species.

English Holly forms dense thickets that can dominate the understory of the forest and out-shade native shrubs and other native plants, reducing the biodiversity of the forests it invades.

Potential Benefits of Invasion

Thickets of Ilex aquifolium are known to be used as a refuge by small birds and deer. The flowers are attractive to bees, small butterflies, wasps, and flies, and the berries provide an important late-winter food source. However, as with all invasive plants, the native wildlife would have depended on the native plants that grew there before the Common Holly replaced them.

Methods to Remove English Holly

As always, prevention is the preferred method of control. It, like most invasive species, is still widely sold online and in most local garden stores. Do not buy or transport any European Holly, and never plant it in your yard.

If you see them being sold online or in your local garden stores, please inform them of their invasive status and ask them to do their part and stop selling them. Ask them to instead sell more native species as ecologically friendly garden alternatives to invasive species.

If you live in the eastern part of North America, why not grow one of the two native hollies instead, Ilex opaca or Ilex vomitoria? If you live in western North America and want some spiny glossy green foliage, try growing native Berberis species instead. They have lovely foliage and beautiful blue-colored berries. The native Ilex and Berberis species can even be substituted for Common Holly in Christmas decorations.

Physical Control of European Holly

Once already established, however, physical control is always the most effective means. Physical control is labor-intensive and time-consuming but causes the least amount of environmental damage.

Physical methods to remove European Holly generally involve uprooting the plants. This is best done when the plants are young before their aggressive roots have had a chance to establish themselves. Fortunately, they are a slow-growing species, so on a single walk through the forest, you can single-handedly destroy dozens of young plants with very little effort. Larger plants will need to be dug out with a shovel to get their roots. If the roots are not dug out, they can re-grow from the stump.

For larger shrubby plants, use pruners to remove the upper growth before using a shovel to dig out the root mass. For tree forms of Ilex aquifolium you can try girdling it. This involves removing a strip of bark from all the way around the circumference of the tree. As with all trees and woody shrubs, the only part of the tree’s trunk that is alive and transporting nutrients is the layer directly under the bark. If you cut down to the heartwood and remove the bark in a strip all around the tree, it can no longer transport water and nutrients to the leaves. The tree will then die and can be left to rot or be removed.

The best time to remove European Holly is before it is in berry, in the spring or early summer. If you need to remove them when in berry, be sure to clip off the berries before removing the shrub or tree and place them in the bag for proper disposal.

Disposal of the Shrubs Once Removed

Trees or shrubs without berries on them can be burned, cut into firewood, or left to rot. If you have plants that have mature berries on them, they must either be burned or solarized. If you are unable to burn in your area, then solarizing is a viable option. To solarize, put the shrubs under a thick black tarp or into thick black garbage bags. Then leave them in the full sun for a good 8 weeks at least to be sure that all seeds are no longer viable. The plants can then be disposed of. They can be brought to a garbage dump where you can inform them they are an invasive species so they can deal with them accordingly.

Chemical Control of European Holly

Chemical applications are almost never an ideal method of control for any invasive species. That is because chemical alteration of the environment often makes the environment more suitable for invasive species than native species. Furthermore, it is often difficult to keep the chemical control method contained so that it does not directly affect any native species that are there during the application process itself. As a result, plots where chemical control is used usually show a decrease in species richness. On the other hand, in plots where only physical control is used, species riches significantly increase.

Furthermore, there are no chemical control methods that effectively target only European Holly. If you do use chemical control, it must be stem injected. The tough evergreen leaves readily resist the absorption of pesticides making foliar applications ineffective.

Chemical control is generally not recommended.

Biological Control of Ilex aquifolium

Biological control involves the use of a predator, herbivore, disease, or some other biological agent to control an invasive species once it is fully established in the environment. The problem with biological control is that the agent used must be entirely specific to only the target organism before releasing it into the environment. This is often difficult to determine since the agent of control is also not native to the environment and could behave differently when released there.

Biological control methods are extremely risky and should only be carried out by professionals after years of rigorous study. The use of biological control methods can never be used alone. They must be part of an integrated pest management approach. However, using biological control in conjunction with physical control and ongoing monitoring can be very effective for some invasive species.

Unfortunately, there are no current methods of biological control for English Holly in North America other than goats. Domestic goats are aggressive and non-selective browsers. They will literally eat anything. This will work best on shrubs and thickets. Often goats will eat the bark off of trees so that they can even kill off the trees if they manage to eat all the way around the tree.

To use goats, the patch should be penned in, and then the goats left there to graze for at least 2 years. They will eventually destroy all the above-ground growth and then eat the new sprouts as they come up. This can then be followed with rootstock removal for any stubborn plants that may remain. Alternatively, simply leave the goats in the area for another year until you see no more sprouts. At this time, they can be moved to another patch, and that patch can be replanted with native vegetation. An ongoing monitoring program should then be implemented to be sure they do not sprout again.

Integrated Pest Management & Ongoing Monitoring

Integrated management is always the best approach. In its simplest form, this involves physical removal methods, possibly biological control methods, replanting, and ongoing monitoring. Integrated management is required because the area needs to be monitored for returning sprouts or seedlings. Otherwise, all the hard work done in removal could be wasted if the invasive species is allowed to regrow.

Replanting With Native Species is Sometimes Crucial

Removal of single plants from the understory of the forest will not require replanting with native species. Simply remove and monitor, and other plants will grow in their place. However, in cases of the removal of thickets that dominate the area, the site should be replanted with native species. A replanting program should already be planned and ready to implement once the English Holly has been removed. You will need to research species that are native to your area. Ideally, use ones from your local environment to ensure local ecotypes are represented. Alternatively, you can purchase suitable plants from a nursery in your area that specializes in native species.

Ongoing Monitoring is Essential

In all cases of invasive European Holly removal, ongoing monitoring is absolutely essential. Yearly monitoring programs should be put in place to ensure that any surviving individuals are removed so that the population is not able to recover. This is required whether the area is replanted or not. Sometimes roots left behind will re-sprout into new plants. Furthermore, birds will keep bringing in new seedlings if there are still plants in the wider surrounding environment. For these reasons, yearly monitoring should be put in place to remove young plants before they have a chance to become established, especially since that is the easiest time to remove them. With ongoing monitoring, we can keep invasive species in check and promote local biodiversity in the process.

References and Resources

Best Management Practices for English Holly in the Metro Vancouver Region http://www.metrovancouver.org/services/regional-planning/PlanningPublications/EnglishHollyBMP.pdf

Canadensys Plant Search https://data.canadensys.net/vascan/search

Dictionary of Botanical Terms – Lyrae’s Nature Blog Dictionary of Botanical Terms

iNaturalist Plant Search https://www.inaturalist.org/home

USDA Plants Database https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov/home

Wikipedia on Ilex aquifolium https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilex_aquifolium

Willis, Lyrae (Unpublished).  Plant Families of North America.

Currently Seeking Funding To Continue This Non-Profit, Ad-Free Work

If you are able to donate so that I can continue this non-profit work of supplying people with scientific information on the plant families, native plants, and invasive species found throughout North America, please donate using the GoFundMe link below. Thank you!

---

Introduction

Himalayan Blackberry or Rubus armeniacus or Rubus bifrons (confusingly, both names seem to be currently accepted) is a well-known invasive species in some areas. Where I grew up on the Sunshine Coast of British Columbia, Canada, it was everywhere. It does less well in the colder interior, but it still does grow there, just much less invasively. As a child, I did not understand that it was invasive and not native. I just loved eating handfuls of the huge juicy, and sweet berries. I would go out picking bucketfuls of berries every summer with my mother and my three brothers. Now I know how invasive it truly is, and somehow the fruits seem a little less sweet to me now. Once established, the removal of Himalayan Blackberry can be very challenging.

Description of Rubus bifrons or Rubus armeniacus

Leaves & Stems of Rubus bifrons or Rubus armeniacus

Rubus bifrons and Rubus armeniacus are members of the Rosaceae family of the Rosales Order of flowering dicots. They are a perennial vine-like trailing shrub that grows 1 – 7 m in length and 0.4 – 1 cm in diameter with arching or creeping stems that are sparse to densely hairy and armed with numerous prickles. They have a large root crown of roots and rhizomes that grow to 0.5 m and sometimes up to 2 m deep.

The leaves are deciduous or sometimes somewhat evergreen and palmately compound with 3 – 5 spreading leaflets. Leaflets are elliptic or ovate to sub-orbiculate and 6 -15 cm long and 4 – 9 cm wide with a rounded or somewhat cordate base. Margins are moderately to coarsely serrated, and the apex is acute to acuminate. The lower surface is whitish to grayish green, while the upper surface is glossy bright green or dark green. There are filiform or linear stipules that are 7 – 15 mm in length. The largest veins have hooked prickles on them.

Flowers & Fruits of Rubus bifrons or Rubus armeniacus

Himalayan Blackberries usually have loose terminal inflorescences that generally extend past their subtending leaves. Sometimes the inflorescences may grow in the leaf axils as well. They are in a thryse with 10-60(-100) flowers in them. Pedicels are covered with prickles, are densely hairy, and may or may not be glandular. Flowers are bisexual with 5 white or pink petals. Petals are not connate (free), are obovate to elliptical and shape, and are 10 – 15 mm long each. It has filiform stamen filaments, and its ovaries are apically hairy.

They produce abundant black fruits that are juicy drupecetums, an aggregation of drupes on a fleshy accessory peduncle. Most people refer to them as ‘berries’. Fruits are globose or almost cylindrical and 1 – 2 cm long with 15 – 50 individual drupelets that strongly adhere to the accessory peduncle. Abundant fertile seeds are produced in their fruits, from 7000 – 13000 seeds per square meter of stems. Seeds can remain viable in the soil for several years.

Similar Species Frequently Confused With

There are native Rubus species throughout North America, but many are smaller plants with smaller or differently shaped and/or colored berries. Some native and introduced Rubus, however, grow to similar sizes but can be differentiated as follows:

• Rubus laciniatus, Cutleaf or Evergreen blackberry, is native to Eurasia and has been fairly widely introduced in North America. It grows in similar habitats to similar sizes with similar fruits but can easily be distinguished by its lacinated or deeply cut leaflets as opposed to the whole serrated leaflets of Himalayan Blackberries.
• Rubus pascuus Chesapeake Blackberry is a native shrub of Kentucky, Virginia, Maryland, Delaware, North Carolina, and South Carolina. It has tighter and shorter inflorescences, is more densely glandular, and its terminal leaflets are erect rather than spreading in Rubus bifrons.
• Rubus pensilvanicus Pennsylvania Blackberry is native throughout eastern Canada and the USA. It usually is a bit smaller than the Himalayan Blackberries, and its very red stems are densely covered in red prickles. It also only ever has white petals on its flowers, and its abaxial leaf sides are hairy but never whitish or grayish-green.
• Rubus ulmifolius Elmleaf or Thornless Blackberry is another European species that has been introduced that superficially looks very similar, but it is only found in California, Oregon, and Nevada. If prickles are not present, they can easily be distinguished by this. However, sometimes it does have prickles, in which case you can differentiate it by its strongly pruinose stems that Himalayan blackberries lack.
• Rubus vestitus European Blackberry is found on the Pacific coast of the US and Canada. It is an armed shrub that is generally smaller than 2 m. It also has narrower inflorescences, nearly round terminal leaflets, and stipitate-glandular hairs lacking in Himalayan Blackberries.

Native Distribution of Rubus bifrons or Rubus armeniacus

There is much debate as to the taxonomic description of this species. Some sources call them all Rubus armeniacus and say these are from Europe. Other sources say that the species are only native to Armenia and Iran. Other sources call this plant Rubus bifrons and say it is widespread in Europe and includes Rubus armeniacus. In either case, whether the same or separate species, they are virtually identical, and both are native to Europe, one more widespread and the other less so.

Habitat Types Where Himalayan Blackberry is Found

Himalayan Blackberry grows in both wetland and upland environments. While it grows abundantly in riparian areas, it does not invade the permanently wet soils of the wetlands though it will tolerate temporary flooding of up to 40 days. It will even tolerate occasional flooding of brackish water. It grows best at low elevations but can grow up to 1200 and occasionally 1800 m above sea level.

Himalayan Blackberries prefer moist, nutrient-rich loam but do not require it. They can also be found growing in soils with a wide range of textures, fertilities, and pH from acid to alkaline. It prefers sunny sites but easily grows in part shade as well.

Human Uses of Himalayan Blackberry

Himalayan Blackberries are widely used as food. They are eaten fresh as berries or frozen or canned for winter use in pies, cakes, jams, jellies, and wines.

Blackberry roots and berries are often used to treat diarrhea, fluid retention, gout, diabetes, gout, and inflammation. It is sometimes used to prevent heart disease and cancer. It makes a good rinse for irritation of the mouth and throat.

They are planted along fences and trellises to create impenetrable barriers to keep people and animals out of an area.

Distribution of Rubus armeniacus, Rubus bifrons in North America

The Himalayan Blackberry species were first brought to North America as a food crop in 1885 for its abundant berries.

In Canada, Rubus bifrons has been recorded in British Columbia, Ontario, Quebec, and Nova Scotia. Canadensys does not distinguish between the two species and uses only Rubus bifrons stating that Rubus armeniacus is a synonym.

In the USA, the Himalayan Blackberry is reported as two separate species. USDA states that Rubus bifrons is only found in the eastern part of the country in Oklahoma, Texas, Missouri, Arkansas, Louisiana, Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Maryland, Virginia, Washington DC, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Massachusetts.

USDA states that Rubus armeniacus is more widespread in the west and scattered in the east. It is found in Washington, Oregon, California, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Missouri, Arkansas, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, Ohio, Virginia, Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Massachusetts.

In Mexico, Rubus bifrons so far has been reported in Veracruz and Oaxaca. Rubus armeniacus has been reported in Baja California (norte), Puebla, Mexico State, Jalisco, and Chiapas.

Himalayan Blackberries have now been introduced on every continent except Antarctica.

How Himalayan Blackberry Spreads

It is primarily spread long-distance by deliberate human introductions planting it in their gardens. It quickly escapes from cultivation due to its aggressive growth.

Short-distance dispersal occurs through birds and animals which eat the abundant fruit and then spread the seeds around in their feces. Humans also spread the fruits by picking them, eating them and dropping them, etc. They also spread vegetatively through their root crown and rhizomes and by rooting at nodes on their stems that come into contact with soil.

Habitats at Risk of Invasion in North America

Himalayan Blackberries are considered particularly invasive on the west coast of North America in low-elevation riparian, deciduous, and conifer forests as well as grasslands. It is heavily invasive in riparian communities in that area. It invades the same types of areas in the east but may be less invasive there due to the other aggressive native and non-native vines that are abundant in that region.

Himalayan Blackberry will not invade permanently wet soils or high-elevation montane forests. It will grow in middle-elevation montane forests but not very well. It will also not grow in most arid areas due to lack of moisture unless it is in a riparian zone with perennial access to water.

Impacts of Invasion

In North America, the Himalayan Blackberry is considered the most invasive nonnative shrub on the western coast from British Columbia, Canada, south to California, USA. They are aggressively spreading shrubs that quickly scramble over and smother all other vegetation in their path, excluding tall trees, as they cannot climb as high as English Ivy, for example. However, it can quickly smother and kill all young trees in its path. It is highly competitive for light, space, and nutrients. Due to its aggressive growth, it quickly out-competes native vegetation.

It replaces the more bio-diverse native shrubs and herbs that would have otherwise grown there, creating complete monocultures if the conditions are suitable for them. This out-competes our native vegetation, reducing biodiversity and even causing local extirpation of species. It also forms dense thickets in riparian areas that impede movement and access to water by humans and animals alike.

Himalayan Blackberry is also an agricultural and range land weed that replaces crop and forage lands quickly if left unchecked. Himalayan Blackberry and Scotch Broom are the two most abundant agricultural and range land weeds, causing an estimated $85 million in losses annually.

The abundant dead canes they produce are also a significant fire risk when they die and become brittle as they burn easily.

Potential Benefits of Invasion

Himalayan blackberries are widely eaten by bears, foxes, coyotes, squirrels, raccoons, deer, birds, slugs, and countless other native species. Most native ungulates prefer to browse the leaves, but some (white-tailed deer, for example) have been observed browsing the fruits. Leafcutter ants and leafhopper butterfly larvae also feed on the leaves. It is the preferred larval host plant for leafhopper butterflies. Pollen and nectar are also used by native bees, honey bees, and hummingbirds.

In addition, a multitude of small animals and birds use the blackberry thickets for cover, nesting, roosting, etc. The impenetrable thickets of thorns provide them protection from predators.

All of these animals, however, would have fed on the native Salmonberries, Thimbleberries, or other native species displaced by the invasive Rubus bifrons, however. The dependence of wildlife on the berries creates an additional challenge to the control or removal of the Himalayan Blackberries. Check out the control methods below for more information.

Methods to Remove Himalayan Blackberry

As always, prevention is the preferred method of control. It, like most invasive species, is still widely sold online and in many local garden stores. Do not buy or transport any Himalayan Blackberry. Do not plant it in your yard.

If you see them being sold online or in your local garden stores, please inform them of their invasive status and ask them to do their part and cease selling them. Ask them to instead sell more native species as ecologically friendly garden alternatives to invasive species.

Instead, buy suitable native Rubus species. There are multiple native blackberries and raspberries that are even more delicious and are just as easy to grow as invasive blackberries. Native Rubus species provide additional biodiversity and wildlife values as well.

In fact, due to wildlife values, this makes the removal of Himalayan Blackberry more challenging. Because native wildlife now depends on this non-native species, when you remove a large patch, it should be done in stages. Clear one-third or one-quarter of the patch (depending on the size).

Once cleared and few sprouts keep coming back, then it should be replanted with a variety of native salmonberries, thimbleberries, or other native shrubs that would have originally fed the wildlife in your area.

Research what species are native to your area to find suitable replacements. Then tackle the next fraction of the patch until you have replaced the invasive blackberry with a more biodiverse native selection.

Ongoing monitoring will, of course, be needed to ensure it does not return and overtake your planted native species. See the Integrated Management section below.

In public and natural areas minimizing disturbance and replanting disturbed areas as quickly as possible are the best prevention strategies for reducing the chance of invasion by Himalayan Blackberry or any other invasive species.

Physical Control of Himalayan Blackberry

Once already established, however, physical control is always the most effective means. Physical control is labor-intensive and time-consuming, but it usually causes the least amount of environmental damage.

The best time to remove Himalayan Blackberry is early in the spring, before or later during flowering but before the fruit has set to avoid further spreading the seeds.

Physical methods to remove Himalayan blackberries generally involve cutting, hoeing, digging, and burning. Often a combination of methods is used. Always wear gloves when handling the canes, as the prickles are very tough and sharp and will easily pierce the skin.

Young plants can be pulled by hand.

Mature plants require the cutting of the canes with cutters or loppers and then removing the rootstock.

Burning is also an effective method to remove the above-ground growth, but as with cutting, the rootstock will need to be dealt with as well. A single cutting back of the above-ground growth, however, if not followed with additional treatments, will actually increase the density of the thicket when it regrows. It must be followed with additional treatments and ongoing monitoring.

If the rootstock is not removed, it will grow back quite vigorously. One method is to repeatedly cut it back or burn it multiple times over multiple years until the roots are starved by the lack of above-ground growth.

Rootstocks can also be dug out with a shovel or a weed puller, but they are very tough, and this is only suitable in small patches.

If you have only a small patch to deal with and root digging is too labor-intensive, you could also cover the entire area with a black tarp for at least two growing seasons to solarize it. This is much less labor-intensive than returning repeatedly, but again this only works on small patches.

Note that it is virtually impossible to remove all of the rootstocks due to the size and depth that the roots spread to. Removing as much as you can is critical to success. However, it must be followed by ongoing monitoring over several years to ensure all new sprouts are destroyed.

Disposal of the Shrubs Once Removed

If you have live stems or plants that have seeds on them, they must either be burned in a hot enough fire or solarized. The fire must be hot enough to destroy the seeds. If you are not allowed fires in your area, then you will have to solarize them.

To solarize, put the shrubs under a thick black tarp or into thick black garbage bags and leave them in the full sun for a good 8 – 10 weeks at least to be sure that all seeds are no longer viable. Some sources suggest less time for polarization, but in my experience, differential heat throughout the bag/tarped area as well as variations in sunlight intensity, can result in the survival of at least some seeds if done for a shorter duration. Take them to your local dump once done and inform them that they are invasive species so that they are disposed of appropriately.

Chemical Control of Himalayan Blackberry

Chemical applications are almost never an ideal method of control for any invasive species. That is because chemical alteration of the environment often makes the environment more suitable for invasive species than native species. Furthermore, it is often difficult to keep the chemical control method contained so that it does not directly affect any native species that are there during the application process itself. As a result, plots where chemical control is used usually show a decrease in species richness. On the other hand, in plots where only physical control is used, species riches significantly increase.

Furthermore, there are no chemical control methods that effectively target only Rubus bifrons or Rubus armeniacus. And due to the nature of Himalayan Blackberry, multiple applications are always needed over multiple years, further degrading the local environment.

Chemical control is not recommended.

Biological Control of Himalayan Blackberry

Biological control involves the use of a predator, herbivore, disease, or some other agent to control an invasive species once it is established in the environment. The problem with biological control is that the agent used must be entirely specific to only the target organism before releasing it into the environment. This is often difficult to determine since the agent of control is also not native to the environment and could behave differently when released there. Take the example of the mongoose and the rat. The mongoose was released in Hawaii in the late 1800s to help control the rat. To this day, there are still rats in Hawaii, but the mongoose has helped to decimate many native bird populations.

Biological control methods are extremely risky and should only be carried out by professionals after years of rigorous study. The use of biological control methods can never be used alone. They must be part of an integrated pest management approach. This is because the control agent would need to effectively destroy over 99% of plants, roots, and seeds to actually control the Himalayan Blackberry on their own. Results this high have never been achieved in the field.

However, using biological control in conjunction with physical control and ongoing monitoring can be very effective at times. However, in North America, so far, there are no biological control methods in terms of insects, fungi, or other pathogens that have been approved. This is because they all put our abundant list of native Rubus species at risk as well.

Using Goats to Remove Himalayan Blackberries

The only recommended biological control method at this time is grazing by domestic goats. Domestic goats are aggressive and non-selective browsers. They will literally eat anything. To use goats, the patch should be penned in, and then the goats left there to graze for 3 years. They will eventually destroy all the above-ground growth and then eat the new sprouts as they come up.

This can be sped up by an entire year by first removing the above-ground growth and then allowing the goats to eat the sprouts as they come up.

This can then be followed with rootstock removal for any stubborn plants that may remain, or simply leave the goats in the area for another year until you see no more sprouts.

At this time, they can be moved to another patch, and that patch can be replanted with native vegetation and a monitoring program implemented to be sure they do not sprout again.

Integrated Pest Management & Ongoing Monitoring

Integrated management is always the best approach. In its simplest and least impactful form this involves physical removal methods, possibly biological control methods, replanting, and ongoing monitoring. Integrated management is required because the area needs to be monitored for returning sprouts or seedlings otherwise, all the hard work done in removal could be wasted if the invasive species is allowed to regrow.

Replanting With Native Species is Crucial

In all cases of Himalayan Blackberry removal, the site will need to be replanted once the majority of the infestation has been dealt with. This is because the bare soil will allow the seed bank of Himalayan Blackberry in the soil to germinate and re-invade the patch they were removed from. Or it will allow the invasion by other nonnative species, which all favor disturbed sites.

A replanting program should already be planned and ready to implement in the 2nd to 4th year upon removal of the Himalayan Blackberry, depending on the speed and success of the removal method.

A variety of native species that are ideally seeds from the local environment to ensure local ecotypes should be planted. If local seeds cannot be gathered or started in time, then purchasing native plants from a reputable nursery specializing in local native species is a good alternative. This must then be followed by ongoing monitoring.

Ongoing Monitoring is Essential

In all cases of invasive Himalayan Blackberry removal, ongoing monitoring is absolutely essential.

Multiple visits should be made in the first two years to ensure that any surviving individuals, their sprouts, and their seedlings are removed so that the population is not able to recover.

Then yearly monitoring after that for at least five years to ensure that none return. This is required whether the area is replanted or not. Himalayan Blackberry is aggressive and prolific and will out-compete planted vegetation if yearly monitoring is not put in place to remove young plants before they have a chance to become established.

References and Resources

CABI on Rubus armeniacus https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/116780

Canadensys Plant Search https://data.canadensys.net/vascan/search

Dictionary of Botanical Terms – Lyrae’s Nature Blog Dictionary of Botanical Terms

Eflora Plants of North America http://www.efloras.org/browse.aspx?flora_id=1

Fire Effects Information System on Himalayan Blackberry https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/shrub/rubspp/all.html

iNaturalist Plant Search https://www.inaturalist.org/home

Rubus armeniacus fruits picture from Wikipedia By Daderot – Own work, CC0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=21796138

USDA Plants Database https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov/home

Wikipedia Himalayan Blackberry https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubus_armeniacus

Willis, Lyrae (Unpublished).  Plant Families of North America.

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If you are able to donate so that I can continue this non-profit work of supplying people with scientific information on the plant families, native plants, and invasive species found throughout North America, please donate using the GoFundMe link below. Thank you!

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Introduction

I never saw saltcedar, Tamarisk, or any of the other common names that Tamarix species go by until I traveled south. So far, they have not ventured far into Canada and certainly haven’t been venturing there long. However, in the south, they thrive in hot, dry areas, particularly saline soils where few plants will grow, allowing them to take over. There are 50 – 60 species of Tamarix in the world, and not one is native to North America. In North America, we have Tamarix aralensis, Tamarix aphylla, Tamarix africana, Tamarix canariensis, Tamarix chinensis, Tamarix gallica, Tamarix parviflora, Tamarix ramosissima, and Tamarix tetragyna.

All Tamarix species should be considered invasive in North America. They have covered over a hundred million acres in the western US alone, and they frequently hybridize, making identification to the species level challenging. For the purpose of identifying them as an invasive species and for Tamarisk or Saltcedar removal or control, identification to the genus level is more than sufficient.

Description of Tamarix spp

Leaves & Stems of Tamarix spp

Tamarix spp are part of the Tamaricaceae family in the Caryophyllales Order of flowering dicot plants. They are either shrubs or small trees from 1- 10 m tall and are often multi-stemmed. They are a long-lived species living 100 years or more. Most species are deciduous. They are almost all very deep-rooted, with a tap root up to 30 m deep that also produces lateral roots up to 50 m long that can produce adventitious buds, especially when covered by shifting sand. Their deep taproots are meant to reach down into the groundwater, allowing them to survive in hot drought-prone climates as long as they are close to the water table.

Young branches are glabrous and are a variety of colors depending on the species. They may be reddish-brown, brown, blackish-brown, dark purple, grey, or black. Older branches have heavy bark that is frequently shredded and may be grey or brownish and reaches 10 – 15 (-30) cm in diameter.

The usually sessile (without leaf stalks) leaves of Saltcedars are much reduced and appear small and bract-like, somewhat resembling that of coniferous tree needles. Leaves are varying shades of dull, light, or dark green and turn golden-orange in the fall.

Flowers & Fruits of Tamarix spp

Tamarisk or Saltcedars produce a racemose inflorescence that is often paniculately branched. They are borne on the ends of current-year branches or in some species’ previous-year branches. In most species in North America, the flowers appear after the leaves have grown back. The flowers are very small, usually pink, and most have small petals only 1 – 2 mm long.

Fruits are multi-sided capsules with up to thousands of tiny seeds. The capsules usually have a tuft of hair that aids in wind dispersal. They can also be dispersed in water. Seed viability is very short, however, from around 20 to a maximum of 120 days, depending on the weather. However, Saltcedars can flower and produce seeds for extended periods of time, allowing them to reproduce prolifically even with their short seed life.

Similar Species Tamarix spp are Frequently Confused With

Other Genera

There are a few other genera that Tamarix species are occasionally confused with that also grow in similar habitats and ranges and have much-reduced leaves. However, all of those can easily be differentiated by their flowers.

Parkinsonia species are members of the Fabaceae family and have larger yellow, somewhat pea-like flowers and produce small legume fruits.

Prosopis glandulosa has sprays of yellow rather than pink flowers, and it is also a Fabaceae that produces long legume fruits.

Lepidospartum squamatum has a limited range native to the southwestern USA and northwestern Mexico and has small yellow Asteraceae-type disk flowers and typically Asteraceae cypsela fruits. Baccharis neglecta has a similar North American range, but it is a perennial plant, not a shrub, and produces individual whitish flowers more typical of the Asteraceae family it belongs to.

Polygonella robusta is an uncommon plant of the Polygonaceae family that is endemic to Florida and produces similar sprays of small pink flowers, but its leaves, while still small, are long and linear compared to all Tamarix species.

Juniperus virginiana smells strongly of Juniper and has characteristic powdery blue “berries” and no pink flowers.

Casuarina equisetifolia is widespread in Mexico and more limited in the southern USA. It has needle-like leaves, but they are longer, divided into septa, and grouped in fascicles, and it produces a globose cone-like fruit.

Tamarix Genera

Tamarix species can be challenging to identify at the species level. For the most part, genus-level identification in North America is sufficient for treating the plants as invasive species, as none are native to North America. However, with a bit of patience and a small amount of skill, they can be identified to the species level as follows:

• Tamarix aralensis Russian Tamarisk has a limited range in North America. It is similar to T. chinensis and T. ramosissima but has a much more limited range. It can be differentiated by its petals that fall off at the time of seed maturation.
• Tamarix aphylla Athel Tamarisk is more widespread in Mexico than in the southern USA. It is the only evergreen species, and its leaves are sheathing on the stems rather than sessile or amplexicaul like all other Tamarix species in our area. It also produces white instead of pink flowers.
• Tamarix africana African Tamarisk has a very limited range in the southern USA. It has the largest flowers (though still small) with petals that are 2 – 3 mm long and racemes that are 5 – 9 mm wide.
• Tamarix canariensis Canary Island Tamarisk has a limited range in the southern USA. It is similar to T. chinensis and T. ramosissima, but its sepal margins are denticulate, and it has obovate petals that are 1.2 – 1.5 mm long.
• Tamarix chinensis Five-Stamen Tamarisk is widespread in Mexico and the USA. It also is the most similar to T. ramosissima, and the two often hybridize, leading some to believe they should be considered the same species. They have five petals and five stamens. They can only be differentiated by this one’s sepal margins that are entire and that some or all of the stamens’ filaments originate from below the nectar disc. Filament inspection requires patience, a hand lens, and some skill. Furthermore, its petals persist at seed maturation, unlike T. aralensis.
• Tamarix gallica French Tamarisk has a limited west and south range in the USA and northern Mexico. It is also similar to T. chinensis and T. ramosissima, but its sepal margins are entire or almost entire, and it has elliptic to ovate petals that are 1.5 – 2 mm long.
• Tamarix parviflora is very widespread in the USA and is limited to the northern parts of Mexico. Its flowers are produced before it gets its leaves, and it usually only has four petals, unlike all other species in North America, whose flowers are five-petaled and arrive after the appearance of leaves.
• Tamarix ramosissima is fairly widespread in both USA and Mexico. It is the most similar to T. chinensis, and the two often hybridize, leading some to believe they should be considered the same species. They have five petals and five stamens. However, this species’ sepal margins are denticulate rather than entire, and all the stamens’ filaments originate from the edge of the nectar disc rather than below it in T. chinensis. Filament inspection requires patience, a hand lens, and some skill. Furthermore, its petals persist at seed maturation, unlike T. aralensis.
• Tamarix tetragyna Four-Stamen Tamarisk is found only in Georgia. It can be differentiated by its flowers that have only four stamens as opposed to the five that all other species in North America have.

Native Distribution of Tamarix spp

There are approximately 100 species of Tamarix, and all are native to Eurasia and Africa. None are native to the Americas.

Habitat Types Where Saltcedar is Found

Saltcedar, with its long taproots, is usually found only near groundwater and is, therefore, particularly common in riparian habitats, including floodplains, permanent or ephemeral stream banks, and around lakes and water reservoirs. They can also grow in upland habitats out of contact with groundwater, but they are less common there and grow less vigorously there. They can grow from 0 – 2000 m above sea level.

There is a common misconception that they are saline-loving plants, but in fact, they tolerate a wide range of soils, including those fairly high in salinity. This gives them a significant competitive advantage in saline areas where most other plants cannot survive. In those conditions, they typically rapidly produce monocultures displacing the few native halophytes found there.

Human Uses of Tamarisk

Tamarisk is used as an ornamental, especially in marginal habitats or saline soils. It was also widely planted as a stream and dune stabilizer in some areas. It is being used in China to fight the expansion of deserts.

Tamarisk wood is sometimes used for firewood, carpentry, and the making of bows and other tools.

In Africa and Asia, Tamarix species are used medicinally to treat wounds and infections as well as liver and spleen disorders. It is seldom currently used in North America medicinally.

Distribution of Tamarix spp in North America

The species was first brought to North America in the 1800s as an ornamental species. There are no species of Tamarix native to North America.

In Canada, Tamarix ramosissima has been recorded but ephemeral in British Columbia. It has been seen but not lasted long enough to confirm in Ontario, Manitoba, Quebec, and Nova Scotia.

In the USA, nine Tamarix spp are found. They are distributed as follows:

• Tamarix aralensis Russian Tamarisk is found in California and North Carolina.
• Tamarix aphylla Athel Tamarisk is found in California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and Texas.
• Tamarix africana African Tamarisk is found in California, Arizona, Texas, Louisiana, and South Carolina.
• Tamarix canariensis Canary Island Tamarisk is found in Arizona, Louisiana, Georgia, South Carolina, and North Carolina.
• Tamarix chinensis Five-Stamen Tamarisk is more widespread and is found in Washington, California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas, Arkansas, Ohio, and North Carolina.
• Tamarix gallica French Tamarisk is found in Washington, California, New Mexico, Texas, Louisiana, Georgia, South Carolina, and North Carolina.
• Tamarix parviflora is the most widespread species in the USA, being found in Washington, Oregon, California, Idaho, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, Montana, Colorado, New Mexico, Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, Missouri, Louisiana, Illinois, Mississippi, Kentucky, Tennessee, Florida, North Carolina, Virginia, Michigan, Pennsylvania, Delaware, New Jersey, Connecticut, and Massachusetts.
• Tamarix ramosissima is also fairly widespread, being found in California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina and Virginia.
• Tamarix tetragyna Four-Stamen Tamarisk is found in Georgia.

In Mexico, there are five species of Tamarix found as follows:

• Tamarix aphylla is the most widespread found in Baja California, Baja California Sur, Sonora, Sinaloa, Chihuahua, Durango, Jalisco, Michoacan, Coahuila, Nuevo León, Tamaulipas, San Luis Potosi, Guanajuato, and Mexico City.
• Tamarix chinensis is found in northern Mexico in Baja California, Baja California Sur, Sonora, Sinaloa, Chihuahua, Coahuila and Nuevo León. It is possibly found in Mexico City, Mexico State, and Tamaulipas, but this is unconfirmed.
• Tamarix gallica is much less widespread and also only found in the northern states of Baja California, Coahuila, and Nuevo León. There is also an unconfirmed location in Chihuahua.
• Tamarix parviflora is the least widespread in Mexico and is only found on the northern border of Baja California. It is not far from the border in New Mexico, so it may likely spread to Chihuahua from there soon.
• Tamarix ramosissima is the second most widespread in Mexico, with populations found in Baja California, Baja California Sur, Sonora, Sinaloa, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, Guanajuato, Queretaro, Mexico State, Mexico City, and Guerrero.

How Tamarisk Spreads

It is primarily spread long-distance by deliberate human introductions into gardens or as a landscape plant.

Short-distance dispersal occurs through the abundant tiny seeds spread by wind, water, humans or animals. Seeds have a very short viability period; however, if they are not germinated during the summer that they are dispersed, almost none germinate the following year. However, Saltcedar produces seeds over a very long period enabling its rapid spread. Mature tamarisk plants also spread vegetatively by adventitious roots producing colonies of clones. 

Habitats at Risk of Invasion in North America

All riparian areas are at risk of invasion, particularly in the semi-arid and arid southern areas of our continent. More northern areas are less at risk, but we have seen invasion into North and South Dakota, Washington State, and New York, as well as the so-far ephemeral invasion into southern Canada. Tamarisk or Saltcedar has expanded its riparian dominance significantly since the 1800s and now covers huge geographical areas. Its rapid spread does not seem to be slowing, and its range continually grows.

In California desert areas, Saltcedars have now even become established in remote mountain springs, streams, and washes. These areas show no sign of human disturbance and are long distances away from any source of infestation. This means that wild riparian areas far from humans are not safe from Saltcedar invasion.

Impacts of Invasion

Tamarisk thrives in riparian habitats where it quickly displaces native vegetation due to rapid growth, tolerance of a wide range of environmental conditions, and long periods of abundant seed production. Tamarisk also accumulates salt in its leaf glands and excretes it onto the leaf surface. These salts accumulate in the soil when the plants drop their salty leaves. As surface soils become more saline over time, they further exclude native vegetation, producing monocultures. Native herbivores’ preference for native plants gives Tamarix species yet another competitive advantage.

Significant loss of biodiversity occurs in the stands of Saltcedar. Plant diversity is dramatically reduced, resulting in a loss of riparian bird, insect, invertebrate, aquatic and animal diversity.

Potential Benefits of Invasion

Saltcedar provides a habitat for a number of bird species. However, many of these are introduced from the Old World, where Tamarix evolved; though some of our native birds do use it, they still prefer native plants.

Methods to Remove Tamarix spp

As always, prevention is the preferred method of control. It, like most invasive species, is still widely sold online and in many local garden stores. Do not buy or transport any Saltcedar. Do not plant it in your yard. There are so many Native Plant Species that would make suitable garden specimens that are noninvasive and provide additional wildlife and biodiversity values.

If you see Tamarisks being sold online or in your local garden stores, please inform them of their invasive status and ask them to do their part and cease selling them. Ask them to instead sell more native species as ecologically friendly garden alternatives to invasive species.

Physical Control of Saltcedar Tamarisk

Once already established, however, physical control is a labor-intensive but effective means to remove Saltcedar. Physical control is time-consuming and costly, but it usually causes the least amount of environmental damage and leaves the area the most biodiverse afterward.

The best time to remove Saltcedar or Tamarisk is before it has gone to seed. Because it flowers and seeds for an extended period of time, this must be done in the late fall, winter, or early spring. If the plants are in seed upon removal, they can be burned or solarized as the seeds are sensitive and should die easily.

Physical methods to remove Saltcedar generally involve pulling young plants by hand, if very small, or with a weed puller or digging them out with a hoe or shovel.

Mature specimens are generally cut down, but the rootstock must be either dug out with a machine or chemically treated for a period of time to prevent re-sprouting. Isolated larger specimens can be solarized to prevent re-sprouting, but the tarp must remain for 2 growing seasons. Another method is to simply keep returning to the area a few times each growing season for several years in a row to keep cutting any new sprouts. This will eventually starve out the roots and kill the plant.

Along controlled rivers scheduling 5 – 10 year floods which wash out the Saltcedars removing them and leaching salts from the soil. This allows the native vegetation adapted to periodic flooding to grow back and displace the Saltcedar. The seedlings can be easily killed by keeping an area flooded for one month. The flooding method can also be used in low-lying areas that are isolated. Cut down all mature plants to the ground and keep the area flooded for an extended period of time. It will kill or prevent any new seedlings or sprouting and will eventually start rotting out and starving the roots. After the water is allowed to drain, the short seed viability period makes it unlikely that many new seedlings will emerge. Ongoing monitoring and hand-pulling of the few that do grow can be effective at preventing the population from becoming re-established.

Methods Not Recommend

Neither mowing nor burning will effectively control mature Saltcedar. Plants will quickly regrow from their basal stem buds and be supported by their extensive and deep root systems. Seedlings can be controlled by physical removal as mowing is generally ineffective on them as well due to their roots.

Disposal of the Shrubs Once Removed

If you have plants that have seeds on them, they must either be burned or solarized. Though mature plants are fire-adapted and will regrow, their sensitive seeds are vulnerable to fire, so the burning of shrubs is desirable in areas where burning is allowed.

If burning is not allowed, you should solarize the shrubs under a thick black tarp or in thick black garbage bags and leave them in the full sun for 6-8 weeks to be sure that all seeds are no longer viable. Since seed viability is poor, solarizing is also an effective method to destroy seeds.

Chemical Control of Saltcedar Tamarisk

Chemical applications are almost never an ideal method of control for any invasive species. That is because chemical alteration of the environment often makes the environment more suitable for invasive species than native species. Furthermore, it is often difficult to keep the chemical control method contained so that it does not directly affect any native species that are there during the application process itself. As a result, plots where chemical control is used usually show a decrease in species richness. On the other hand, in plots where only physical control is used, species riches significantly increase.

Saltcedar is somewhat resistant to chemical control methods, with up to 30% of plants resprouting up to three years after treatment. This means multiple applications will be needed. Furthermore, there are no chemical control methods that effectively target only the control of Saltcedar. Finally, due to their preference for riparian habitats, the use of herbicides is often not allowed due to proximity to water.

However, professionals and government officials may determine where and when chemical applications can be safely carried out to deal with vast areas of infestation. Chemical control by individuals is generally not recommended.

Biological Control of Saltcedar

Biological control involves the use of a predator, herbivore, disease, or some other agent to control an invasive species once it is established in the environment. The problem with biological control is that the agent used must be entirely specific to only the target organism before releasing it into the environment. This is often difficult to determine since the agent of control is also not native to the environment and could behave differently when released there. Take the example of the mongoose and the rat. The mongoose was released in Hawaii in the late 1800s to help control the rat. To this day, there are still rats in Hawaii, but the mongoose has helped to decimate many native bird populations.

Biological control methods are extremely risky and should only be carried out by professionals after years of rigorous study. The use of biological control methods can never be used alone. They must be part of an integrated pest management approach. This is because the control agent would need to effectively destroy over 99% of seeds to actually control the Saltcedar on their own. Results this high have never been achieved in the field. However, using biological control in conjunction with physical control and ongoing monitoring can be very effective.

So far, in North America, only one biological control agent has been released to control Tamarisk. Diorhabda elongata deserticola is a leaf beetle from western China and eastern Kazakhstan that was released in the USA in 1986. The beetles established well in the more northern areas and, after the third season, were seen to defoliate over 95% of the plants in the area. The populations have been spreading and are successfully helping to control Saltcedar in larger and larger areas. The introduced leaf beetle has also shown to be highly selective for Tamarisk and so far has not been observed eating any native vegetation. This makes it highly suitable for the biological control of Saltcedar.

The leaf beetles, however, did not establish in the southern areas due to increased predation and climatic differences. Additional subspecies of D. elongata have now been obtained from lower latitudes in Europe and Asia to be tested in more southern locations. It is too early for conclusive results.

Goats and cattle will graze on Saltcedar, but cattle, in particular, will selectively graze on native vegetation where it is present. Goats are less selective and will generally eat anything. Grazing would need to be done on a continual basis for at least 4 – 5 years so that they eat all sprouts that try to grow back up from the rootstock. Eventually, this would starve out the rootstock, and the plants would die.

Integrated Pest Management & Ongoing Monitoring

Integrated management is always the best approach. In its simplest and least impactful form, this involves physical removal methods, possibly biological control methods, replanting, and ongoing monitoring. Integrated management is required because the area needs to be monitored for returning sprouts or seedlings; otherwise, all the hard work done in removal could be wasted if the invasive species is allowed to regrow.

Replanting With Native Species is Crucial

In all cases of removal, the site should be replanted once the area has been cleared of Saltcedar and the soil has been leached of excess salts. Leaching the soil involves manually flooding the area with fresh water if there is insufficient rain in the region. Otherwise, waiting until after the rainy season may be sufficient as long as there are no more Saltcedars there.

Bare soil invites more infestations, and high salinity prevents biodiversity from improving. A replanting program should be planned and ready to implement the following year after the removal of Saltcedar. Then ongoing monitoring will be necessary to ensure no sprouts survive and no new seeds are accidentally brought into the area.

Ongoing Monitoring is Essential

In all cases of invasive Saltcedar removal, ongoing monitoring is absolutely essential. Yearly monitoring programs should be put in place to ensure that any surviving sprouting individuals are removed so that the population is not able to recover. Due to the short viability of seeds, new seedlings will stop emerging after a single season, provided no new seeds are accidentally transported to the site. Monitoring is required whether the area is replanted or not. Saltcedar has very deep and widespread roots that will easily regrow and start a new infestation if left unchecked. Yearly monitoring will prevent this and will allow the site to recover so that native plants will return.

References and Resources

CABI on Tamarix ramosissima https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/52503

Canadensys Plant Search https://data.canadensys.net/vascan/search

Dictionary of Botanical Terms – Lyrae’s Nature Blog Dictionary of Botanical Terms

Eflora Plants of North America http://www.efloras.org/browse.aspx?flora_id=1

Fire Effects Information System on Tamarix spp https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/tamspp/all.html

iNaturalist Plant Search https://www.inaturalist.org/home

USDA Plants Database https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov/home

Wikipedia Tamarix https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamarix

Willis, Lyrae (Unpublished).  Plant Families of North America.

Currently Seeking Funding To Continue This Non-Profit, Ad-Free Work

If you are able to donate so that I can continue this non-profit work of supplying people with scientific information on the plant families, native plants, and invasive species found throughout North America, please donate using the GoFundMe link below. Thank you!

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Introduction

Pyrus calleryana is often called the Bradford Pear after the cultivar that was planted widely in the US in the 1960s and 1970s and still sometimes is today. However, the Bradford Pear itself is an infertile cultivar, hence the more appropriate common name of the Callery Pear. The Bradford Pear cultivar can neither self-pollinate or cross-pollinate with the same cultivar as its seeds are infertile. However, if different cultivars of Pyrus calleryana are grown within 100 m of each other they can cross-pollinate and produce fertile offspring. The resulting Callery Pear is a fast-growing aggressive tree with a broad ecological tolerance, rapid growth, few pests and early sexual maturity. It produces abundant tiny fruits with abundant tiny seeds. The fruits are hard and woody but soften after a hard frost and become appealing to birds which then spread their seeds around. It quickly replaces native vegetation wherever its seeds have a chance to grow. Once established, removing or controlling Callery or Bradford Pear can be challenging.

Do not buy any cultivars of Pyrus calleryana because they may cross-pollinate and spread in the wild. The Bradford / Callery Pear story is a perfect example of why we should not buy supposed “sterile cultivars” of invasive species because we never know how they will behave until they have already escaped into the wild. Supposed sterile cultivars of Scotch Broom and Purple Loosestrife have also done a similar thing. Instead, research plants that are native to your area and plant those. Native plants tend to be naturally resistant to pathogens and insects, require little watering or feeding, and promote biodiversity and wildlife values. Also, there are always lovely native plants everywhere that are just as beautiful as invasive cultivars, if we just look for them we will find them.

Description of Pyrus calleryana

Leaves & Stems

The Callery Pear is a deciduous tree that can grow 5 – 20 m tall and has a trunk that is up to 0.6m in diameter. The trunk, however, often splits into multiple branches that tend to break easily in storms damaging the tree and shortening its usefulness as a landscape tree. Its branches are reddish-brown when young and become grayish-brown with age with vertical grooves in the older bark.

Pyrus calleryana simple leaves are arranged alternately on the stem. They are 4 – 9 cm long and are on 2 – 4.5 cm long petioles. Leaf blades are ovate, broadly ovate or oblong–lanceolate. The surface is shiny green glabrous (hairless) with undulate (wavy) and slightly toothed margins. In fall the leaves turn yellow, orange, and red before falling off for the winter.

Leaf shape can be variable and these indicate the different varieties of Pyrus calleryana. For the purpose of invasive species removal or control, identification to the species level alone is sufficient. There will always be variations in morphology because the wild species are all hybrids of various cultivars and as such will generally exhibit intermediate characteristics between its two parent varieties.

Flowers & Fruits

Callery Pear flowers in April and May just before the leaves appear. The flowers are malodorous smelling somewhat of rotten fish. Flowers are 2.5 cm wide with 5 white obovate petals 6 – 7 (–13) mm long and × 6 – 7 (–13) mm wide.

Pyrus calleryana has numerous stamens with white filaments and topped with reddish or brownish anthers. Its ovaries are 2 – 3 (–4)-locular and they are topped with 2 or 3 styles.

Fruits are small pomes (like an apple), around 1 cm in diameter and globular (round) in shape. They are green when young in late spring and summer but turn brown when ripe in the fall and winter. They contain numerous cyanide-laced seeds inside.

Similar Species Frequently Confused With

There are numerous species of mostly Pyrus and Prunus (plum and cherry) species that Pyrus calleryana could be confused with as well as some other genera. All genera it can be confused with are part of the Rosaceae family. Sometimes people confuse it with Populus species as well but the appearance of the flowers in the spring will easily distinguish it from those.

• Pyrus communis – the Common Pear has very similar flowers and leaves but its mature bark has horizontal and vertical grooves in it making it more of a checkerboard-like pattern than the vertical striations of Pyrus communis. Its leaves are usually smooth-margined rather than undulate. Also, the fruits grow much, much larger, are pear-shaped and edible.
• Crataegus spp – there are multiple Crataegus species in its range in North America that, like many Rosaceae, have very similar flowers. However, Crataegus species always have variously lobed leaves compared to the simple unlobed leaves of Pyrus calleryana.
• Prunus avium – the Wild Cherry has a similar range, similar leaves and flowers. Its bark is smoother and shinier, lacking any longitudinal or horizontal grooving. The smooth bark does, however, possess numerous horizontal lenticels (slightly raised striations). Its fruits are also larger and of varying shades of red or sometimes yellow when ripe. The fruits have a single pit and are edible.
• Prunus mahaleb – the St. Lucia Cherry or American Black Cherry has a similar range, leaves and flowers as well. However, it never grows to more than a large shrub up to 5 m tall. Its bark lacks the grooves of Pyrus calleryana and it has horizontal striations. Its bitter fruits are also black when ripe and possess a single pit.
• Prunus mexicana – the Mexican Plum has a similar range, leaves and flowers as well. However, its filaments on its many stamens are often pink, the flowers are often pinkish-white, and its fruits are larger, plum-like and pinkish to purple when ripe rather than brown.
• Prunus cerasifera – the Myrobalan Plum or Plum-Cherry has similar flowers, leaves and range. However, its flowers are either white or pink and the anthers are typically yellow rather than reddish or brownish. The fruits are yellow to reddish in color when ripe and are edible and larger, to 2-3 cm in diameter.
• Prunus serotina – the Capulin or Black Cherry has a similar range, leaves and flowers too but the flowers grow in elongated racemes instead of umbels. Also, its bark is more smooth and covered with horizontal striations. The somewhat bitter fruits are a bit larger and are reddish-black to black in color with a single pit as opposed to brown with multiple seeds.
• Viburnum prunifolium – this Rosaceae member has similar leaves and range as Pyrus communis. However, its flowers are much smaller, to 0.9 cm in diameter, they only have 5 stamens, and they are arranged in tighter umbels with more flowers.

Native Distribution of Pyrus calleryana

The Callery Pear is native to Asia in China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan and Vietnam.

Habitat Types Where Bradford Pear is Found

Callery Pear can be found growing in empty lots, mixed forests, forest edges, thickets and plains. It can grow from 0 – 800 m in elevation. It prefers full sun but can tolerate part shade. Pyrus calleryana does not grow in full shade.

Pyrus calleryana is tolerant of a very wide range of soil types and pH. It easily tolerates the poor soils and polluted conditions of living in urban environments. It can grow in poor and rich soil alike. Callery Pear tolerates a range of soil conditions and will tolerate temporarily water-logged soils and temporary droughts. However, it will not survive extended periods of flooding or extended periods of drought.

Human Uses of Bradford Pear

Callery Pear Pyrus calleryana as Ornamental or Tools

The Bradford Pear was widely planted in the USA in the 1960s and 1970s as a fast-growing and low-maintenance landscape tree. As a landscape tree, it produces abundant white flowers in spring and has red foliage in the fall making it a desirable ornamental despite the malodorous flowers. Callery Pear is often used as a rootstock to graft fruit cultivars onto.

Callery Pear wood, like all Pyrus wood, is very fine-textured and sometimes used for making musical instruments, veneer, woodcuts, or other fine wooden products.

Distribution of Pyrus calleryana in North America

The species was first brought to North America in 1909. It was later widely planted in the 1960s and 1970s in the USA.

In Canada, Pyrus calleryana has not yet been recorded on Canadensys. However, there have been reports on iNaturalist in southern Ontario, Nova Scotia and possibly in southern BC. It is not clear if those are all planted or wild specimens. Given that it is invasive just south of the border in these locations it seems likely that it may start spreading more into Canada soon.

In the USA, Callery Pear has been introduced in Oklahoma, Texas, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, South Carolina, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Virginia, Delaware, Washington DC, Maryland, New Jersey, New York, Connecticut, and Massachusetts. On iNaturalist it is also reported in Colorado and all along the west coast but most of these may be intentional plantings of cultivars that may or may not yet have escaped into the wild.

In Mexico Pyrus calleryana so far has only been reported in Tamaulipas. Given its close proximity to the northern Mexican border on the US side, it is likely that it will spread more in the near future.

How Callery Pear Spreads

Callery Pear is primarily spread through long-distance by deliberate human introductions as garden and landscape ornamentals. While the Bradford Pear itself is infertile it can cross-pollinate with other cultivars of Pyrus calleryana and the Asian Pear Pyrus betulifolia which can then produce fertile seeds and spread in the wild. Also, fertile varieties are often used as the rootstock when grafting. If the infertile crown of the tree is damaged sometimes the fertile rootstock will then grow and produce fertile fruits.

Short-distance dispersal occurs primarily through birds and humans. The hard fruits become soft after a frost and are a popular winter food source for winter birds in North America. The birds eat the winter fruits and spread the abundant fertile seeds in their feces. Even without fruits Callery Pear also reproduces short distances vegetatively through suckers.

Humans can also spread the seeds short distances unintentionally on their shoes or clothes. Often the disposal of unwanted trees or branches removed from pruning while in fruit results in infestations from yard waste piles when they are not burned or properly disposed of.

Habitats at Risk of Invasion in North America

Callery Pear often forms dense patches in abandoned fields, empty lots, disturbed areas and on roadsides. It can invade any riparian area, open mixed forests, meadows, thickets, mountain slopes and anywhere else its fertile seeds land and grow. Since it is tolerant of such a wide range of soil conditions this means that many habitats are at risk.

It generally will not invade dense forests, particularly coniferous ones. Also, it typically does not invade permanent wetlands except where drier conditions exist. It does not tolerate severe drought so will not invade desert areas.

Impacts of Invasion by Pyrus calleryana

Pyrus calleryana often creates dense near monoculture stands, particularly in disturbed areas, roadsides and old fields. It can also gain a significant foothold in open mixed forests. They out-compete the native vegetation and significantly reduce the biodiversity in the area upon infestation. Once a dense stand is created it can be difficult to remove.

Potential Benefits of Invasion

Birds enjoy Callery Pears abundant fruits throughout the winter, including many native birds. However, the birds are the primary dispersal method and would likely have eaten native fruits left on trees that were displaced by the Callery Pear.

Methods to Remove Bradford or Callery Pear

As always prevention is the preferred method of control. It, like most invasive species, is still widely sold online and in most local garden stores. Do not buy or transport any Pyrus calleryana cultivars. Even though Bradford Pear themselves may be infertile they can cross-pollinate with other cultivars and escape into the wild. Do not plant it in your yard. Instead, research native species to your region. Native species require little or no maintenance, are very beautiful and provide wildlife and biodiversity values.

If you see them being sold online or in your local garden stores please inform them of their invasive status and ask them to do their part and cease selling them. Inform them that though supposedly infertile they are still able to cross-pollinate with other cultivars and they are spreading in the wild. Ask them to instead sell more native species as ecologically friendly garden alternatives to invasive species.

Physical Control of Bradford or Callery Pear

Once already established physical control is always the most effective means to remove Callery Pear. Physical control is labor-intensive and time-consuming but it causes the least amount of environmental damage.

The best time to remove Callery Pear is in the early spring either before or during flowering but before the plant sets fruit to avoid dispersing the seeds around.

Physical methods to remove Callery Pear depend on the size. Young seedlings or trees can simply be pulled out. When the ground is moist it makes removal easy as the roots cling less tightly to the soil when it is moist. Young trees can be pulled out with a weed-puller like the one shown in the affiliate ads below.

Mature trees on the other hand will need to be cut down and then the root pulled out by digging it with a shovel or machine, depending on the size. If it is too difficult to remove the root then you can deal with it one of three ways. First, you can solarize the stump with a plastic tarp by laying the tarp over the stump and weighing it down with rocks. Leave it like that at least until the following year. The second method is to return to the site every year and cut any sprouts that try to grow. Eventually, it will starve out the root. The final method is to chemically treat the stump with a herbicide.

Another method to control large trees in areas that make them difficult to remove is to ring the bark. Using a very sharp knife cut into the bark and remove a horizontal patch at least 5 cm wide all the way around the tree. Be sure to remove all bark in this patch down to the heartwood. This prevents the tree from transporting nutrients and water up and the products of photosynthesis down. This effectively starves the tree so that it will eventually die. It would still need monitoring however to be sure that no new sprouts try to start from its stump.

Disposal of the Trees Once Removed

If you have plants that have seeds on them they must either be burned or solarized. Do not dispose of them in yard waste if they have mature fruits. Large trees can also be cut into firewood. If you do not have a fireplace and are not allowed yard burning in your area then you will need to solarize them before disposal. To solarize put the trees under a thick black tarp and leave them in the full sun for a good 6 – 10 weeks at least to be sure that all seeds are no longer viable. If there are no fruits on the trees you can dispose of them in yard waste.

Chemical Control of Bradford or Callery Pear

Chemical applications are almost never an ideal method of control for any invasive species. That is because chemical alteration of the environment often makes the environment more suitable for invasive species than native species. It is often difficult to keep the chemical control method contained so that it does not directly affect any native species that are there during the application process itself. Furthermore, there are no chemical control methods that effectively target only Pyrus calleryana. As a result, plots where chemical control is used usually show a decrease in species richness. On the other hand, in plots where only physical control is used species riches significantly increases.

However, the one suitable exception is the chemical treatment of large root stocks that you are unable to dig out mechanically or by hand. Ideally solarize or return to the area as part of an ongoing monitoring process. If you are unable to do either then chemical control of Callery Pear stumps can be a good alternative as you are only treating the stump to prevent re-sprouting. Research herbicides safe for use in your area and treat only the stump. If it is in a riparian area you may not be able to use this method due to proximity to water. Ideally you should still return the following year to be sure that nothing survived.

Biological Control of Callery Pear

Biological control involves the use of a predator, herbivore, disease, or some other agent to control an invasive species once it is established in the environment. The problem with biological control is that the agent used must be entirely specific to only the target organism before releasing it into the environment. This is often difficult to determine since the agent of control is also not native to the environment and could behave differently when released there. Take the example of the mongoose and the rat. The mongoose was released in Hawaii in the late 1800s to help control the rat. To this day there are still rats in Hawaii but the mongoose has helped to decimate many native bird populations.

Biological control methods are extremely risky and should only be carried out by professionals after years of rigorous study. The use of biological control methods can never be used alone. They must be part of an integrated pest management approach. This is because the control agent would need to effectively destroy over 99% of plants and their seeds to actually control the Callery Pear on their own.

Unfortunately, Pyrus calleryana seems resistant to pests of all kinds. It is part of what made it desirable as a landscape plant. Also, finding suitable pathogens is tricky because if they could be found even testing them in the field could put commercial Pyrus and Prunus crops at risk. While insects and grazers alike will feed on the pear, particularly when young, they are ineffective as a control measure on their own. And once Pyrus calleryana reaches a significant size large herbivores will no longer be able to reach the foliage.

However, young stands of Callery Pears could be controlled with the use of goats which are known to eat anything. Provided that all the trees are young and can be reached by the goats they can be penned in. They will continuously feed on the young trees and over time will destroy any sprouts or seedlings that emerge. This is only suitable in dense young stands, however, as the goats will also eat any native species in their vicinity. The goats would need to remain in the patch for a couple of seasons.

Integrated Pest Management & Ongoing Monitoring

Integrated management is always the best approach. In its simplest and least impactful form this involves physical removal methods, possibly biological control methods, replanting and ongoing monitoring.

Replanting With Native Species is Crucial

In most cases of removal, the site would ideally be replanted with native species to prevent invasive species from re-establishing in the bare soil that was left behind. A replanting program should already be planned and ready to implement immediately upon the removal of Callery Pear. You would need to research plants native to your area and study the site to determine which species would be most suitable. Ideally, gather seed stock from the surrounding area to ensure you have local ecotypes suitable to the area. If this is not possible then buy from a nursery specializing in native species to ensure that you are not planting cultivars of native species.

Ongoing Monitoring is Essential

In all cases of invasive Callery Pear removal, ongoing monitoring is absolutely essential. Yearly monitoring programs should be put in place to ensure that any surviving individuals are removed. This is required whether the area is replanted or not. Callery Pear is aggressive and prolific and can out-compete planted vegetation. Yearly monitoring to remove young plants before they have a chance to become established can prevent this. Yearly monitoring in late spring followed by removal of all sprouts and seedlings will be sufficient for a monitoring program.

References and Resources

Canadensys Plant Search https://data.canadensys.net/vascan/search

Dictionary of Botanical Terms – Lyrae’s Nature Blog Dictionary of Botanical Terms

Eflora of North America http://www.efloras.org/browse.aspx?flora_id=1

iNaturalist Plant Search https://www.inaturalist.org/home

USDA Plants Database https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov/home

Wikipedia on Pyrus calleryana https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrus_calleryana

Willis, Lyrae (2022).  Plant Families of North America. Not yet published.

Currently Seeking Funding To Continue This Non-Profit, Ad-Free Work

If you are able to donate so that I can continue this non-profit work of supplying people with scientific information on the plant families, native plants, and invasive species found throughout North America, please donate using the GoFundMe link below. Thank you!

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Introduction

Kudzu is the collective term for several Pueraria species, members of the Fabaceae family. There are multiple species and varieties that can be difficult to distinguish and there is some debate as to whether we even should, or just lump them into one or two more variable species. Regardless of the species debate Pueraria species are highly aggressive and invasive weeds in most places where they are introduced. I have only seen them a few times myself when I was in the eastern USA but there they grow over top of everything, including the other aggressive native and non-native vines found there. Kudzu was encouraged to be planted by the US government in the 1940s for erosion control. Now millions of dollars are spent annually trying to control or remove Kudzu. It is often referred to as “the vine that ate the south”.

Description of Pueraria montana

Leaves & Stems

Kudzu vines are part of the Pueraria genus in the Fabaceae (legume) family of the Fabales order of dicot flowering plants. The most common species in North America is Pueraria montana var lobata, but many people still refer to it as Pueraria montana. The distinctions are subtle, and the vines in North America of all Pueraria species are able to hybridize and distinctions between them become hazy. Once identified to the species level, for the sake of treating it as a noxious weed at least, further classification is rarely necessary and may be left to a professional. The characteristics described here define Pueraria montana in all its variants and subspecies forms.

Pueraria montana is a herbaceous perennial vine that will climb over anything when it is able or sprawl across the ground where there is nothing to climb. It has strong stems that are 0.6 – 2.5 cm in diameter and can be up to 30 m in length. They are incredibly fast-growing, up to 25 cm per day or 18 m in the growing season where the conditions are right.

Kudzu grows from enormous tubers that are up to 2 m long and 18 – 45 cm wide that can weigh up to 180 kg on mature individuals. Like many Fabaceae, it is capable of nitrogen fixation through its root nodules allowing it to grow in poor soil conditions.

Kudzu has pinnately arranged trifoliate leaves 8 – 20 cm long and 5 – 19 cm wide. Its leaflets are ovate to orbicular and are either entire or lobed. Leaflets are pale green above and paler to grayish-green below. They are usually hairy on the abaxial (under) side.

Flowers & Fruits

The fragrant pea-like flowers are reddish, purplish or bluish in color and frequently have yellow patches. Flowers grow from the leaf axils in elongated mostly unbranched inflorescences 10 – 25 cm long. Each flower is 2 – 2.5 cm wide.

The fruits are flattened oblong pods that are 4 – 13 cm long and 0.6 – 1.3 cm wide. They are green when young but turn brown with golden hairs when they mature. The flattened ovoid seeds are visible through the pods and are 4 – 5 mm long by 4 mm wide. They are reddish-brown when mature. While Kudzu is fully capable of pollinator-assisted sexual reproduction it relies mostly on vegetative reproduction to spread.

Similar Species Frequently Confused With

It is difficult to confuse Kudzu with other genera due to the large ovate trifoliate leaves. Sometimes people mistake English Ivy Hedera helix or Poison Ivy Toxicodendron radicans because they have a similar range. However, neither of these are from the Pea family and will have very different flowers. Also, their leaflets in general are much smaller and seldom to never ovate in shape. The only other vine of the pea family that it could be mistaken with is Amphicarpaea bracteata described below.

There are 2 Kudzu species in the Americas, and one of the species has a variant that is similar enough to simply be a variant and in most cases identification down to the variant level is unnecessary. Some people believe Pueraria montana var lobata is the one whose leaflets are lobed, but Pueraria montana itself may also have lobed leaves. Differences are subtle, and many hybridize, so we will leave Pueraria montana identification to the species level only here. The other species is often referred to as Tropical Kudzu and it has a much more limited distribution. It can be differentiated as follows:

• Tropical Kudzu Pueraria phaseoloides – is only found in a handful of locations in the eastern USA and in Veracruz, Mexico. Its flowers are white and purple instead of red, blue or purple with yellow. Its leaflets tend to be much smaller, but can sometimes grow as large, and they tend to be triangular but occasionally may be ovate. And they can also hybridize with the other Pueraria species, further blurring the lines of identification.
• American Hog-Peanut Amphicarpaea bracteata – native to the eastern USA and grows in similar habitats as Kudzu and has trifoliate leaves that look similar, but are usually much smaller. Its flowers are smaller and fewer and are usually white or light pink, never red, blue or purple. Its fruit is usually much smaller and is never golden-hairy.

Native Distribution of Pueraria montana

Pueraria montana is native to East Asia, southeast Asia and some Pacific Islands. It is common in China and Japan.

Habitat Types Where Kudzu is Found

Kudzu can grow in most habitats including forests, riparian areas, roads, fields, along fence rows, and any abandoned lots, buildings, waste areas etc. It is often seen hanging off of trees it has killed, telephone poles, abandoned buildings, vehicles, etc. In China it is often seen on road embankments and in mountains where the land cannot be cultivated.

Kudzu is an opportunistic vine that grows in almost any soil type excluding very wet soils or those with high pH. It can easily grow in nutrient-poor sandy or clayey soils though it prefers well-drained loam.

Human Uses of Kudzu

Kudzu as Food

The large tubers of Kudzu are frequently eaten as a starchy root vegetable. Kudzu leaves, shoots and flowers are often steamed or pickled and eaten as a vegetable.

Kudzu vines are often used as a nutritious forage for livestock.

Kudzu as Medicine

Kudzu root, flower, and leaf have all been used to make medicines, especially in China since at least 200 BC. It is used to treat a variety of ailments including heart and circulatory problems, high blood pressure, chest pain, sinus infections, colds, hay fever, flu and skin problems including allergies, itchiness and psoriasis. It is also sometimes used to treat menopause, muscle pains, measles, dysentery, gastritis, fever, diarrhea, stiff neck, polio, encephalitis, migraine, diabetes and traumatic injury.

Kudzu is a common treatment for hangovers from too much alcohol and has been used in China and Japan for this since 600 AD. It is still widely used today to reduce the symptoms of hangovers including headaches, upset stomach, vomiting, and dizziness.

Kudzu as Ornamental

Kudzu is often used as a garden ornamental. It is sometimes also used to stabilize slopes. Due to its noxious nature, this is done less often now, but still occasionally happens.

Distribution of Pueraria spp in North America

Kudzu was first brought to the USA from Japan at the Japanese pavilion in the 1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia. It was extensively planted in the US in the 1930s and 1940s to control erosion. While multiple species have been introduced and have spread the most abundant species in North America is Pueraria montana var lobata.

In Canada, Pueraria montana has so far only been recorded in Ontario and was only discovered in 2009. Given that it is in Washington state just south of the British Columbia, Canada border it is likely only a matter of time before it appears in British Columbia.

In the USA, Kudzu is found in Washington, Oregon, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, Missouri, Arkansas, Louisiana, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, South Carolina, North Carolina, Virginia, Washington DC, West Virginia, Maryland, Delaware, Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Maine. It is also found in Hawaii, the Virgin Islands, and Puerto Rico.

In Mexico Pueraria spp so far has been reported in Pueblo, and possibly in Oaxaca, Guerrero, Nayarit, Jalisco and Veracruz but the identifications could not be confirmed without flowers.

Kudzu has now been introduced on every continent except Antarctica.

How Kudzu Spreads

It is primarily spread through long distance by deliberate human introductions as a garden ornamental or landscape plant. It can be ordered online or purchased in local garden nurseries in some states. It is regulated as a pest in Canada and more difficult to purchase, though online sales are seldom regulated.

Seed dispersal is responsible for a small fraction of its spread. Seeds transported in soil will result in some short distance dispersal. However, short distance dispersal occurs mostly through vegetative reproduction as it is capable of rooting from its stem anywhere it touches soil of any quality. It can grow substantially in subtropical areas, up to 18 m in a single growing season. Yard debris piles where careless discarding of vines removed from yards is a significant source of introduction into the wild as is escaping from the yard itself to adjacent land.

Habitats at Risk of Invasion in North America

Any open forest, forest edge, field, abandoned lot, riparian area, etc is at risk of invasion by Kudzu, particularly if they are located next to a source of Kudzu. Because Kudzu primarily reproduces by vegetative spread this slows the rate of invasion quite significantly in terms of distance. In local areas, however, it can rapidly overtake everything.

Kudzu so far has spread widely throughout eastern USA but it will likely spread more north into southern Canada, though so far its range is limited to southern Ontario. Southern Quebec and the Atlantic Provinces are also at risk. It will not invade wetlands or deserts as it cannot tolerate permanently wet soils or extended periods of drought. It can handle drought, however, as long as they are not too severe. It may not invade much of the central North America due to harsher winters. However, with climate change that is unpredictable.

There is still a lot of habitat suitable for it particularly on the west coast of North America including all of the western USA as well as British Columbia, Canada, and parts of Mexico. So far early detection has controlled its spread in these regions.

Impacts of Invasion

Kudzu is a large and aggressive vine that grows over all other vegetation it encounters smothering it and killing it creating monocultures. Even trees are eventually smothered and suffer from loss of photosynthetic capacity until eventually they die. Kudzu, therefore, results in dramatic losses of biodiversity in the area of infestation, negatively affecting native vegetation as well as wildlife that would otherwise feed, nest, or grow on the native plant species it displaces. Once introduced it is notoriously difficult to control.

Potential Benefits of Invasion

Kudzu has often been used to stabilize slopes and does a good job of it. Also, it fixes almost all of its nitrogen and because of the die-back of its leaves it contributes a lot of nitrogen to the soil. After Kudzu is removed, providing you are successful in removing it, the soil is often richer as a result. However, the fact that it smothers and kills all other plant life growing in its vicinity outweighs its benefit as a soil stabilizer and enricher.

Methods to Remove Kudzu

As always prevention is the preferred method of control. It, like most invasive species, is still widely sold online and in some local garden stores. Do not buy or transport any Kudzu plants or roots and never plant them in your yard. It is illegal to purchase in many states and provinces. However, online sales are rarely properly regulated.

If you see them being sold online or in your local garden stores please inform them of their invasive status and ask them to do their part and cease selling them. Ask them to instead sell more native species as ecologically friendly garden alternatives to invasive species.

Once established in an area Kudzu is notoriously difficult to eradicate. Its extremely fast growth and its ability to smother everything in its path combined with its rapid ability to produce roots at any node which touches the soil all makes it difficult to control. Intensive ongoing effort and an integrated management approach are required in order to control or remove Kudzu infestations.

Physical Control of Kudzu

Once already established physical control is very challenging. Physical control of Kudzu is labor-intensive and time-consuming but will cause far less environmental damage than chemical control.

Since Kudzu spreads mostly vegetatively it can be removed in spring, summer, or fall without having to worry much about the seeds. If there are mature seeds on the plants clip them off into a paper bag to keep them contained in case they are fertile and can produce new plants.

The vines should be cut with hand cutters or loppers and pulled down from trees and structures they are climbing on. Then the tubers and all new roots will need to be carefully removed. Since it grows so quickly the biggest challenge in Kudzu removal is that every root crown must be destroyed or the population will recover. Physical removal must be part of an integrated management approach with continuous ongoing monitoring in order to be successful. The area will need to be revisited multiple times the first year to out compete its rapid growth and re-vegetation rate. Then the site will need to be revisited for 4 – 10 years afterward to ensure that every vine that tries to re-establish is destroyed. Even if a single root crown survives and is left to grow within just a few years it could take over the entire area once again.

Mechanical mowing of ground cover patches in flat open areas is a somewhat less labor-intensive approach that can be successful. Mowing repeatedly throughout the growing season for 3 – 5 years in a row will starve out the roots. Eventually, the plants will die without having above-ground material to photosynthesize in order to keep the roots alive.

Prescribed burning can be used in early spring before fire season if your area allows it. This will kill small kudzu plants and sever the climbing stems that are in the trees, poles, etc. Burning may not be effective for larger plants with intensive root systems as the fire may not ever get hot enough. Also, fire alone will not work. It will need to be followed up with physical removal and of course ongoing monitoring.

Disposal of the Shrubs Once Removed

Plants including roots, stems and seeds all must be either burned or solarized before disposal to prevent new populations from beginning at the disposal site. Burning is an effective method to destroy the plant matter, but it is not allowed in some areas or in certain seasons. In this case, solarize them instead. To solarize put the vines into thick black garbage bags and leave them in the full sun for a good 6 – 8 weeks at least to be sure that none of the roots, stems or seeds are no longer viable. Do not try to solarize them on the ground under a tarp. Due to its extremely fast growth rate and rapid rooting at nodes the vines may be able to grow out from under the tarp and start new plants before the ones under the tarp are properly destroyed.

Once solarized the vines can be disposed of at your local garbage dump. Be sure to still inform them that they are an invasive species so that they can be disposed of accordingly, just in case there are still viable stems.

Chemical Control of Kudzu

Chemical applications are almost never an ideal method of control for any invasive species. That is because chemical alteration of the environment often makes the environment more suitable for invasive species than native species. Furthermore, it is often difficult to keep the chemical control method contained so that it does not directly affect any native species that are there during the application process itself. As a result plots where chemical control is used usually show a decrease in species richness. On the other hand, in plots where only physical control is used species riches significantly increases.

Furthermore, there are no chemical control methods that effectively target only Kudzu. And due to the highly aggressive nature, large tuberous roots, and extremely fast growth rate of Kudzu multiple applications are always needed in a single growing season. If even a single root crown survives the treatment and goes undetected within a few years the Kudzu will again take over the area. Therefore applications must continue for 4 – 10 years after the initial treatment. If chemical control alone is used there will be an enormous amount of toxic chemicals being dumped into the environment, making it less suitable for native species.

Chemical control is not recommended.

Biological Control of Kudzu

Biological control involves the use of a predator, herbivore, disease, or some other agent to control an invasive species once it is established in the environment. The problem with biological control is that the agent used must be entirely specific to only the target organism before releasing it into the environment. This is often difficult to determine since the agent of control is also not native to the environment and could behave differently when released there. Take the example of the mongoose and the rat. The mongoose was released in Hawaii in the late 1800s to help control the rat. To this day there are still rats in Hawaii but the mongoose has helped to decimate many native bird populations.

Biological control methods are extremely risky and should only be carried out by professionals after years of rigorous study. The use of biological control methods can never be used alone. They must be part of an integrated pest management approach. This is because the control agent would need to effectively destroy 100% of the vines, their stems, their roots, and their seeds in order to remove Kudzu on its own.

However, with Kudzu biological control is possibly going to be the most effective means with the least amount of effort due to its rapid growth rate and difficulty controlling it by other means. Particularly with large infestations or those near a large source of Kudzu, biological control may be the most desirable. It still of course must be done as part of an integrated management approach that uses physical removal of those unaffected by the biological treatment along with essential ongoing monitoring for multiple years.

Following is a list of biological control methods that have been used in North America in an attempt to help reduce the population densities of Pueraria montana and varieties.

Pathogens both native and non-native to North America have been isolated from Kudzu populations.

• Pseudomonas syringae pv. phaseolicola a plant pathogen native to North America that causes halo blight of legume plants was tested to control Kudzu. It caused high mortality on young and old growth. However, it performed much less well under dry conditions in the field.
• Myrothecium verrucaria is another native fungus that showed greater potential success in the field as it did not require such moist conditions. High mortality rates were observed in the field, and they even performed even better in the heat of summer. Since the application requires the use of a surfactant it keeps the risk of the fungus spreading beyond the application area minimal. However, the fungus did show high toxicity to mammals so extreme caution by professionals is required for application in the field.
• Alternaria and Fusarium fungal species are currently being developed in the USA for potential biological control of Kudzu and other weeds.

Heavy grazing by livestock such as by cows, pigs, horses or goats can also be used to remove Kudzu as part of an integrated management approach. This would only work in groundcover patches though as the animals cannot eat the vines in the trees or on buildings. The animals would need to be fenced in the Kudzu patch for long periods of time to be effective at controlling Kudzu on their own.

Integrated Pest Management & Ongoing Monitoring

Integrated management is always the best approach. In its simplest and least impactful form this involves physical removal methods, possibly biological control methods, replanting, and ongoing monitoring.

Replanting With Native Species is Crucial

In all cases of removal, the site should be planted after the Kudzu is removed. This cannot be done immediately upon the first removal, however, due to the extreme growth rate of Kudzu. But replanting should be commenced in years 2 – 4, depending on the patch dynamics. Replanting with aggressive native species will help keep the Kudzu at bay. However, ongoing monitoring to remove any new seedlings or sprouts of Kudzu will still need to be intensely carried out. If a single root crown survives it will still grow over and smother any vegetation that is planted.

Ongoing Monitoring is Essential

In all cases of invasive Kudzu removal, ongoing monitoring is absolutely essential. Monitoring is important for all invasive species removal, but perhaps Kudzu most of all. The extreme growth and survival rate of stems and roots requires extreme diligence in monitoring. Repeated monitoring for the first couple of years should be carried out on a monthly basis during the growing season to remove any new growth. Then yearly monitoring programs should be put in place for a minimum of 4 years after the initial removal. Monthly monitoring can be reduced to every couple of months in years 2 and on, presuming there are few new individuals being found. An aggressive monitoring program is the only thing that will ensure the success of any biological, physical, or chemical removal or control of Kudzu.

References and Resources

CABI on Pueraria montana https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/45903

Canadensys Plant Search https://data.canadensys.net/vascan/search

Dictionary of Botanical Terms – Lyrae’s Nature Blog Dictionary of Botanical Terms

iNaturalist Plant Search https://www.inaturalist.org/home

Kudzu Photo Smothering Trees in Georgia by Scott Ehardt, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kudzu_on_trees_in_Atlanta,_Georgia.jpg

RxList.com for Medicinal Uses of Kudzu https://www.rxlist.com/kudzu/supplements.htm

USDA Plants Database https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov/home

Willis, Lyrae (2022).  Plant Families of North America. Not yet published.

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