How to Identify the Apocynaceae Dogbane and Milkweed Family

9 Oct, 2022

How to Identify the Apocynaceae Dogbane and Milkweed Family

Asclepias variegata Redring Milkweed from Georgia, USA. The Asclepiadaceae or Milkweed family used to be their own family but are now a subfamily of Apocynaceae
Asclepias variegata Redring Milkweed from Georgia, USA. The Asclepiadaceae or Milkweed family used to be their own family but are now a subfamily of Apocynaceae

Table of contents

Introduction to the Apocynaceae Family

The Apocynaceae family is a family of often showy, beautiful flowers that are frequently fragrant but also often happen to be highly poisonous if ingested. The name Dogbane comes from this toxic nature that has poisoned livestock and possibly dogs too. The Apocynaceae was recently revised to include the former Asclepiadaceae or Milkweed Family. There is an excellent reason to do so based on molecular phylogenetics, and the two families are very similar in their morphology and other properties. There are a few notable differences in the Asclepiadoideae subfamily that I have included in detail in the descriptions below.   

Flowers of the Apocynaceae Family

Plants are hermaphrodites; pollination is entomophilous and often conspicuously specialized with trapping mechanisms using modified stylar heads or specialized anthers. Flowers are terminal or axillary and either solitary or aggregated in panicles, cymose (often umbelliform), or rarely in racemose inflorescences. The flowers are often large and showy and are usually bracteate and bracteolate. They are regular, 4-5 merous, tetracyclic, and may be malodorous, fragrant, or odorless. A hypogynous disk is usually present except in the Asclepiadoideae, where it is always absent. The perianth has ten parts in two whorls with a distinct calyx and corolla, which is isomerous. The calyx has five parts in one whorl, is usually connate (at least basally), is regular, and quincuncial (Apocynoideae), imbricate (Asclepiadoideae), or valvular (Asclepiadoideae). The corolla also has five parts in one whorl and may or may not be appendiculate. The corolla is connate with the lobes shorter to longer than the tube. It is usually contorted or rarely valvate, is funnel-shaped or salverform, regular, and comes in various shades of white, yellow, red, orange, pink, purple, or blue.

Androecium of the Apocynaceae Family

The androecium has five members that are adnate and inserted near the base (always Asclepiadoideae), midway down, or in the throat of the corolla tube. They are usually united with the gynoecium (most Apocynoideae) and may form a gynostegium (always in Asclepiadoideae), or they are free of the gynoecium (most Plumerieae, Periplocoideae). They are free of one another or coherent (always one adelphous in Asclepiadoideae) and are one whorled and consist of exclusively fertile stamens. The stamens are isomerous with the perianth and alternate with the corolla members. The anthers are filantherous to sessile and may or may not be appendiculate. In the Asclepiadoideae, the filaments are almost always appendiculate, with their short filaments ornamented from their bases with nectaries. They are separate, cohering, or connivent (often sagittate in Apocynoideae and distinct from one another but attached adaxially to the stylar head in Asclepiadoideae). The anthers are basifixed or adnate, non-versatile, tetrasporangiate, introrse, and usually bilocular and bisporangiate. In Asclepiadoideae, the anthers are appendaged with horny wings and membranous connective appendages contributing to the coronal complex.  

Gynoecium of the Apocynaceae Family

The gynoecium almost always has two carpels but occasionally may have 2–5(6–8) (especially Pleiocarpa). Sometimes the ovary is interpreted as two locular when it is actually the separate ovaries of a syncarpous gynoecium. The pistil has 1–2 cells. The gynoecium is synstylovarious to syncarpous or synstylous (Asclepiadoideae, Plumerieae, Pleiocarpa) and is often superior, otherwise partly inferior. When synstylous the carpel has 2–50 ovules. Placentation when synstylous is marginal. The gynoecium is usually transverse but always median in Asclepiadoideae. There is usually one style but always two in Asclepiadoideae that are partially joined (free below) by the dilated style head with lateral stigmatic surfaces that alternate with the stamens. There is one stigma that is usually massively expanded and may be contracted in the middle with a ring of hairs or a membrane below. Stigmas are wet or dry type, papillate or not, and either Group II, III, or IV type. Placentation when unilocular with two placentas is parietal and when bilocular (mostly) axile or apical. When bilocular (usually), there are 5–50(1-4) ovules per locule, and when unilocular or incompletely bilocular, there are 2–100. Ovules are pendulous, anatropous, unitegmic, tenuinucellate (Apocynoideae) or pseudocrassinucellate (Asclepiadoideae).

Fruit of the Apocynaceae Family

The fruit is often a fleshy or non-fleshy dehiscent capsule or schizocarp with two mericarps of follicles, berrylets, nutlets, or drupelets. Sometimes it is a fleshy indehiscent berry or a drupe. In Asclepiadoideae, it is always a pair of follicles with thin papery placental flaps or may be a single follicle by abortion of the other carpel.  Seeds are oily and may or may not be endospermic or not. They are usually flat and conspicuously hairy (comose in Apocynoideae, Asclepiadoideae) or not and may be winged or wingless.

Habit & Leaf Form of the Apocynaceae Family

The Apoycnaceae are mostly annual or perennial shrubs, lianas, or herbs but sometimes are trees and those trees may have buttress roots (a few in Tabernaemontana, Dyera). All forms are laticiferous, containing a milky latex characteristic of the family. They are self-supporting or climbing stem twiners, root climbers, or scrambling; when twining, they usually twine anticlockwise. Some plants may be switch plants with succulent photosynthetic stems. Others have peculiar vegetative forms like the leaves modified as passive pitcher traps in Dischidia rafflesiana. Leaves are usually well-developed but may be very reduced. They are persistent and simple. Leaves are herbaceous, leathery, membranous, or rarely modified into spines. They may be attached alternate, opposite, whorled three per whorl, or rarely spiral. The leaf lamina is entire and is frequently pinnately veined but may also be one-veined or pinnately to palmately veined. Leaves are usually exstipulate but may be stipulate and sometimes are reduced to colleters found in the stipular position. Domatia occur in 18 genera as pits, pockets, or hair tufts. The leaf lamina is usually dorsiventral, sometimes bifacial, or isobilateral in Nerium oleander. The epidermis sometimes contains crystal idioblasts.  Diverse forms of hairs are often found, and they may be eglandular or glandular, often with glandular shaggy hairs at the lamina bases and on the petiole. Complex hairs are usually not present (except for Pachypodium).

Uses of Apocynaceae 

Most parts of many members of this family are poisonous, hence the common family name of Dogbane since it has been used to poison dogs and other animals.  The sap of most is a milky latex, which is often toxic but can sometimes be used for medicines and rubber.  Many ornamentals come from this family, including Oleander, Frangipani, Carissa, Plumeria, etc. The Asclepiadoideae are an important source of cultivated succulents or vines from Asclepias, Hoya, Araujia, Ceropegia, Stapelia, Caralluma, Decabelone, etc.  Asclepias spp are required for reproduction and food by the famous Monarch Butterfly. Carissa carandas is the source of the edible Natal Plum.  

Morphology of Apocynaceae in North America

Flowers of Apocynum androsaemifolium showing their bell shaped flowers that are common in the Apocynoideae subfamily of the Apocynaceae
Flowers of Apocynum androsaemifolium showing their bell shaped flowers that are common in the Apocynoideae subfamily of the Apocynaceae
Flowers of Asclepias syriaca show the structure of the Asclepiadoideae subfamily of Apocynaceae with their gynostegium & anthers united with the stylar head.
Flowers of Asclepias syriaca show the structure of the Asclepiadoideae subfamily of Apocynaceae with their gynostegium & anthers united with the stylar head.
Flowers of Asclepias variegata showing the umbelliform cyme inflorescence common among the Apocynaceae family
Flowers of Asclepias variegata showing the umbelliform cyme inflorescence common among the Apocynaceae family
Flowers of Nerium oleander showing the 5 part corolla with extra appendages, seen in some members of the Apocynaceae. The pinwheel shape is also common.
Flowers of Nerium oleander showing the 5 part corolla with extra appendages, seen in some members of the Apocynaceae. The pinwheel shape is also common.
Fuzzy follicles of Asclepias syriaca are a bit unique. While follicles are common in the Apocynaceae they tend to be smooth for the most part.
Fuzzy follicles of Asclepias syriaca are a bit unique. While follicles are common in the Apocynaceae they tend to be smooth for the most part.
Drupe of Cascabela ovata. Drupes are less common among the Apocynaceae but are seen in the Apocynoideae and Rauvolfioideae subfamilies.
Drupe of Cascabela ovata. Drupes are less common among the Apocynaceae but are seen in the Apocynoideae and Rauvolfioideae subfamilies.
Dehisced follicle of Asclepias engelmanniana showing the white comose seeds common among many of the Apocynaceae family.
Dehisced follicle of Asclepias engelmanniana showing the white comose seeds common among many of the Apocynaceae family.
Broken follicle of Plumeria rubra showing the milky white latex seen in all members of the Apocynaceae family where it may be seen in fruits, leaves & stems
Broken follicle of Plumeria rubra showing the milky white latex seen in all members of the Apocynaceae family where it may be seen in fruits, leaves & stems
Herbaceous habit of Asclepias latifolia is not the most common habit of the Apocynaceae but there are many well-known herbs, particularly in the Asclepias
Herbaceous habit of Asclepias latifolia is not the most common habit of the Apocynaceae but there are many well-known herbs, particularly in the Asclepias
Cactoid like succulent stem of Pachypodium rutenbergianum - succulent stems are not common but also not rare among the Apocynaceae
Cactoid like succulent stem of Pachypodium rutenbergianum – succulent stems are not common but also not rare among the Apocynaceae
Habit & leaves of Raucolfia tetraphylla showing the shrub form common among the Apocynaceae as well as the whorled leaf attachment also frequently seen.
Habit & leaves of Raucolfia tetraphylla showing the shrub form common among the Apocynaceae as well as the whorled leaf attachment also frequently seen.
The leaf of Asclepias syriaca is a typical entire, herbaceous leaf with pinnate venation so often seen among the Apocynaceae family.
The leaf of Asclepias syriaca is a typical simple, entire, herbaceous leaf with pinnate venation so often seen among the Apocynaceae family.
Leaves of Cascabela ovata are are simple, entire, persistent, leathery, & arranged in a whorled pattern on the stem, all common in the Apocynaceae.
Leaves of Cascabela ovata are are simple, entire, persistent, leathery, & arranged in a whorled pattern on the stem, all common in the Apocynaceae.
Leaves of Asclepias verticillata while they look different than the others shown they are simple, entire, and one-veined, all features of Apocynaceae
Leaves of Asclepias verticillata while they look different than the others shown they are simple, entire, and one-veined, all features of Apocynaceae

Species of Apocynaceae I have Covered So Far

Apocynoideae Subfamily

Adenium obesum native to Africa but cultivated elsewhere. Has large swollen stems with a v enlarged caudex; spiral leaves clustered @ tips; tubular pink flowers 4-5 cm wide w 5 petals.

Adenium obesum – Sabi Star or Desert Rose

This is a drought-deciduous or evergreen shrub that is native to Africa but cultivated elsewhere. It has large swollen stems with a very enlarged caudex. Spiral leaves are clustered at branch tips. It has tubular pink flowers 4 – 5 cm wide with 5 petals.

Apocynum androsaemifolium branching perennial w opposite ~ ovate leaves; mostly terminal cymes of small campanulate usu pinkish flowers. Native throughout NAM.

Apocynum androsaemifolium – Spreading Dogbane

This is a branching herbaceous perennial with opposite and more or less ovate to somewhat elliptical leaves. Flowers are small, campanulate, whitish-pink, and found mostly in terminal cymes. Native throughout North America.

Apocynum cannabinum erect branching perennial w opposite ~ lanceolate to ovate leaves usu w whitish bloom; flowers small greenish to cream usu terminal; stem usu purplish. NAM native.

Apocynum cannabinum – Indian Hemp

Erect, herbaceous branching perennial with usually purplish-green stems and with opposite lanceolate to ovate leaves that usually have white hairs on the lower surface. Flowers are small greenish to cream-colored, usually in terminal inflorescences. Native throughout North America.

Cascabela ovata shrub or tree w spiral ~ leathery leaves; flower large tubular yellow; fruit ~ round light green but turning purplish. Native to Mexico & CAM. Common in Mexico.

Cascabela ovata – Yellow Oleander

A self-supporting perennial shrub or tree with spiral, moderately thick, and leathery leaves with prominent pinnate venation. Flowers are large, showy, tubular, and yellow. The fruit is large and drupaceous with multiple large stony seeds, roughly orbicular light green, becoming purplish when mature. Native and common in Mexico, also Central America.

Nerium oleander cultivated spp originally from Mediterranean; thick leathery lanceolate leaves in whorls of 2-3; flowers deeply 5-lobed w fringed corolla around mouth of tube; fragrant.

Nerium oleander – Oleander or Nerium

This cultivated species is originally from the Mediterranean. It has thick leathery lanceolate leaves in whorls of 2 – 3. Flowers are deeply 5-lobed with a fringed corolla around the mouth of the floral tube; they are very fragrant.

Pachypodium rutenbergianum cultivated succulent tree w thick branches & long spines; leaves long leathery oblong-lanceolate leaves; flowers white w yellow center. Native Madagascar.

Pachypodium rutenbergianum – Madagascar Palm

This is a unique-looking succulent tree 3 – 8 m tall with very thick succulent branches, long spines, and an enlarged caudex. It has long, leathery, oblong–lanceolate leaves. Flowers are white with a yellow center, petals spreading in a pinwheel shape. Native to Madagascar & cultivated elsewhere.

Trachelospermum jasminoides cultivated Asian shrub w ~ elliptic to ovate glabrous leaves; few-flowered cymes on long peduncles; white flowers are v fragrant, hairy inside tube.

Trachelospermum jasminoides – Star Jasmine

This is a vigorous medium-sized evergreen shrub or vine with elliptic to ovate glabrous glossy green leathery leaves. Flowers are in few-flowered cymes on long peduncles; they are very fragrant and pubescent inside the tube. Native to Asia but widely cultivated elsewhere.

Asclepiadoideae Subfamily

Asclepias arenaria has densely woolly leaves & stems, leaves broadly ovate & often undulate; flowers axillary greenish to cream color; endemic to Great Plains region of the USA.

Asclepias arenaria – Western Sand Milkweed

Erect herbaceous perennial with densely woolly leaves and stems. Leaves are broadly ovate and often very undulate on the margins. Flowers are axillary and greenish to cream color. Endemic to the Great Plains region of the USA, very drought-tolerant.

Asclepias asperula long narrow leaves usu fold lengthwise; usu terminal inflorescence w ~green flowers w maroon highlights. Follicles usu curve like a horn. Native SW USA, N Mexico.

Asclepias asperula – Antelope Horns

This is a clump-forming 1 – 2 ft tall perennial with long narrow leaves that are usually folded lengthwise. Flowers are usually in globose terminal inflorescences with greenish flowers with maroon highlights. Follicles usually curve like a horn. Native to southwestern USA, northern Mexico.

Asclepias curassavica perennial native of SAM, intro elsewhere. Flowers w purple or red corollas & yellow or orange coronas; leaves narrow lanceolate w acute/ acuminate tips.

Asclepias curassavica – Tropical Milkweed

A perennial native of South America but becoming widely introduced elsewhere. Flowers have purple or red corollas and yellow or orange coronas. Leaves are narrow lanceolate with acute or acuminate tips. It is not recommended to grow this plant outside of the tropics because it is confusing monarchs into overwintering in temperate climates instead of migrating.

Asclepias engelmanniana 1-4 branching stems w long & v narrow leaves grouped in 2-3 in upper plant; pale green flowers in crowded inflorescence upper axils. Endemic Great Plains USA.

Asclepias engelmanniana – Engelmann’s Milkweed

A tall, slender perennial with 1 – 4 branching stems with long and very narrow linear–lanceolate leaves, usually in groups of 2 – 3. Pale green flowers without horns are crowded in umbels in the upper axils. Endemic to the Great Plains of the USA.

Asclepias incarnata branched on upper stem w lanceolate to linear-oblong leaves; corolla pink to red (white), horn incurved surpasses hood. Native swamps/wet areas of east NAM.

Asclepias incarnata – Swamp Milkweed

A herbaceous perennial that is branched on the upper part of the stem and has lanceolate to linear–oblong leaves. Corolla is pink to red (rarely white), and the horn is incurved and surpasses the hood. Native to swamps and other wet areas of eastern North America.

Asclepias latifolia unbranched w v large & broad leaves w prominent veins; flowers pale green to yellow, often hidden in axils by leaves. Native W USA & N Mexico, mostly Great Plains.

Asclepias latifolia – Broadleaf Milkweed

This unbranched 2 – 3 ft tall herbaceous perennial has very large, broad, somewhat obovate to oval leaves with prominent veins. Leaves are densely packed, appearing cabbage-like when young. Flowers are pale greenish to yellow, often hidden in axils by the large leaves. Native to western USA and northern Mexico, mostly in the Great Plains.

Asclepias pumila inflorescence flowers, fruits.

Asclepias pumila – Plains Milkweed

This short herbaceous perennial is usually less than 30 cm tall with narrow leaves that are densely spaced, appearing whorled but, upon close inspection, are condensed alternate. Flowers are light pink or white in terminal inflorescences. Endemic to the Great Plains region of the USA.

Asclepias subverticillata branched or not perennial; v narrow leaves w revolute margins whorls of 3-5; star-like flowers upper axillary umbels. native C+SW USA, N Mexico.

Asclepias subverticillata – Horsetail Milkweed

This erect, spreading, herbaceous perennial may or may not be branched, growing to 1 m tall with sparse narrow linear leaves with revolute margins growing in whorls of 3 – 5 at branch nodes. Star-like whitish or cream flowers grow in the upper axillary umbels. Native to central and southwestern USA and northern Mexico.

Asclepias syriaca tall perennial w large ovate to ~ elliptic leaves abaxial surface lighter green; s/w pendulous axillary umbels; flowers usu pink (white), horns inflexed. Native E USA + Canada.

Asclepias syriaca – Common Milkweed

A tall perennial to 1 m tall with large ovate to somewhat elliptic leaves with pale green on the abaxial surface. Flowers are in somewhat pendulous axillary umbels, usually pink (rarely white), with inflexed horns. Follicle has a very roughly textured surface. Native to the eastern USA and Canada.

Asclepias tuberosa stem s/t branched above, hairy; leaves linear to ~ lanceolate, opp or alt on branches; terminal umbels of yellow to red-orange flowers. Native SE Canada, E+SW USA.

Asclepias tuberosa – Butterfly weed

A bushy herbaceous perennial to 60 cm tall, pubescent stem may be single or branched in the top half. Leaves are linear to more or less lanceolate and may be opposite or alternate on branches. Flowers are in terminal flat-topped umbels of yellow to red-orange flowers. Native to southeastern Canada, eastern and southwestern USA.

Asclepias variegata usu unbranched w several pairs of opp broad oblong to ovate leaves; 1-4 compact umbels w white / pink tinged flowers w divergent hoods. Native E NAM.

Asclepias variegata – Red Ring Milkweed

Herbaceous perennial with usually unbranched stems w several pairs of opposite broadly oblong to ovate leaves. Flowers in 1 – 4 globose compact umbels with showy white and pinkish-red tinged flowers with divergent hoods. Native to eastern North America, rare in the north, most common in the southeastern USA.

Asclepias verticillata branched at top/not w numerous narrow leaves in whorls of 3-6; several umbels in upper axils w white to greenish flowers, s/w divergent hoods, horns > hoods. E NAM

Asclepias verticillata – Whorled Milkweed

An erect perennial with branching only at the top of the plant (or unbranched) with numerous narrow linear leaves in whorls of 3 – 6. Flowers are in several umbels crowded in the upper axils with white to greenish flowers with somewhat divergent hoods and horns that are larger than the hoods. Native to eastern North America and parts of western North America.

Cyanchum laeve climbing vine sparsely hairy w opp cordate leaves w axillary umbellate cymes of 5-40 flowers; fruit ovate or tear shaped follicle. Native C+E USA, SE Canada

Cyanchum laeve – Climbing Milkweed or Sand Vine

This is a climbing vine that is sparsely hairy with opposite cordate leaves with palmate venation. Flowers are in axillary umbellate cymes of 5 – 40 flowers. Fruit is an ovate follicle. Native to central and eastern USA, southeastern Canada

Funastrum clausum tendril climbing vine; linear to oblong leaves are pubescent & ~ succulent; axillary flowers w pubescent white petals. Native S USA, Mexico & tropical Americas

Funastrum clausum – White Twinevine

A tendril-climbing perennial vine with linear to oblong leaves that are pubescent and somewhat succulent. Axillary flowers have pubescent white petals. Native to the southern USA, Mexico, and the tropical Americas.

Marsdenia edulis twining vine w leathery light green leaves; whitish flowers in axillary umbels; fruit a large ~ovate follicle edible when young. Native to Mexico.

Marsdenia edulis – Talayote or Tonchi

Twining vine with leathery glossy light green leaves with glaucous lower surfaces. Whitish flowers are in axillary umbels. Fruit is a large, somewhat ovate follicle that is edible when young. Native to Mexico.

Rauvolfioideae Subfamily

Carissa macrocarpa leathery, glossy dark green leaves, v fragrant white flowers, large reddish drupes are edible (Natal Plum). Native Africa, cultivated in S NAM and tropical Americas

Carissa macrocarpa – Natal Plum

Spiny evergreen shrub with leathery, glossy dark green leaves. Flowers are very fragrant and white with long narrow petals. Fruit is a large, reddish, edible drupe. Native to Africa, cultivated in southern North America and tropical Americas

Catharanthus roseus evergreen subshrub w glabrous ovate leaves in opp pairs; flowers white w yellow/red center or dark pink w red center. Native Madagascar cultivated in NAM

Catharanthus roseus – Madagascar Periwinkle

An evergreen subshrub with glabrous ovate leaves in opposite pairs. Flowers are white with yellow or red centers or dark pink with red centers. Native to Madagascar but frequently cultivated in North America.

Plumeria rubra shrub/ small tree w succulent trunk & branches; large deciduous leaves clustered at branch ends; flowers terminal white to pink v fragrant. Native Mexico & tropical Americas.

Plumeria rubra – Red Frangipani

A medium to large shrub or small tree with a succulent trunk and branches. Drought-deciduous or semi-evergreen with large leaves clustered at branch ends. Flowers are white to pink and very fragrant in terminal umbels. Native to Mexico and tropical Americas, widely cultivated elsewhere.

Rauvolfia tetraphylla much-branched shrub to small tree w 4(3-5) whorled leaves per node; flowers axillary small white, fruit is a red 2-seeded drupe. Native Mexico & tropical Americas.

Rauvolfia tetraphylla – Devil Pepper

A much-branched shrub to small tree with 4 (3 – 5) whorled obovate, elliptic, or ~ oblong leaves per node. Flowers are small and white in axillary clusters. The fruit is a small red 2-seeded drupe. Native to Mexico and tropical Americas.

Vinca major – Greater Periwinkle

A scrambling vine with opposite semi-evergreen leaves with a waxy cuticle and tiny hairs, sometimes with ciliate margins. Flowers are pink to violet, partially connate, and pinwheel-like. Native to the western Meditteranean, widely cultivated as a groundcover, and highly invasive in some areas.

Vinca minor – Periwinkle

A scrambling vine with opposite glabrous evergreen leaves that are smaller and narrower than V. major and never have a ciliate margin. Flowers are similar to V. major but a little smaller. Native to Eurasia, widely cultivated and highly invasive in some areas.

Taxonomy of Apocynaceae

The Apocynaceae contains roughly 5000 spp in about 400 genera contained within five subfamilies. It is part of the Gentianales order of the core Eudicots. Asclepiadoideae was recently included in Apocynaceae, greatly increasing the number of species and genera. As with most families, thanks to molecular phylogenetics clarifying our understanding of the plant families, the genera and species have been undergoing revisions. Once major updates have been made, I will also update the lists here.

  1. Apocynoideae is a diverse subfamily of annual or perennial herbs, shrubs, lianas, and the occasional tree. They exude milky latex, but it is sometimes clear. Leaves are simple and entire but otherwise variable. They usually are exstipulate or have very small stipules. The stamen are almost always usually united with the gynoecium but do not form a true gynostegium, they also lack pollinaria. 
  2. Asclepiadoideae is a subfamily that can usually be easily recognized by the presence of a gynostegium with its one adelphous stamens and two styles that are partially joined (free below) by the dilated style head with lateral stigmatic surfaces that alternate with the stamens. There is no hypogynous disk, and the gynoecium is also always median, both of these characteristics are unlike the rest of the family. The fruit is always a follicle (1-2). 
  3. Periplocoideae is a family of herbs, shrubs, vines, or rarely small trees. Colleters are present in the sinuses of the calyx. The stamens are free of the gynoecium (unlike most of the family, excluding Plumerieae in Rauvolfioideae), but the triangular anthers are adnate to the style head.  
  4. Rauvolfioideae is split into eleven diverse tribes. In general, they are mostly trees and shrubs with some herbs or lianas. They also have variable fruit and floral morphology. Sometimes the stamens are free of the gynoecium (unlike most of the family except Periplocoideae). 
  5. Secamonoideae is a small subfamily of lianas or vines that climb by twining, or rarely they may be shrubs. Sometimes there are colleters on the adaxial leaf surface. 

Genera:

Apocynoideae: Adenium (6), Aganosma (9), Alafia (26), Allomarkgrafia (10), Allowoodsonia (1), Amalocalyx (1), Angadenia (2), Anodendron (17), Apocynum (4), Artia (5), Asketanthera (4), Baharuia (1), Bahiella (2), Baissea (18), Beaumontia (9), Carruthersia (4), Cascabela (6), Chonemorpha (10), Cleghornia (2), Cycladenia (1), Dewevrella (1), Echites (14 inc Fernaldia), Ecua (1), Elytropus (1), Ephippiocarpa (2), Epigynum (5 inc Nouettea), Eucorymbia (1), Farquharia (1), Forsteronia (41), Funtumia (2), Galactophora (6), Holarrhena (5), Hylaea (2), Ichnocarpus (3), Isonema (3), Ixodonerium (1), Kibatalia (15), Laubertia (4), Macropharynx (15 inc Peltastes), Malouetia (31), Mandevilla (177 inc Dipladenia, Macrosiphonia, Quiotania, Salpinctes), Mascarenhasia (8), Mesechites (8), Micrechites (13 inc Vallariopsis), Motandra (3), Neobracea (8), Nerium (1), Odontadenia (21), Oncinotis (7), Pachypodium (22), Pacouria (3), Papuechites (1), Parepigynum (1), Parsonsia (85 inc Delphyodon, Grisseea, Lyonsia), Pentalinon (2), Pinochia (4), Pleioceras (5), Pottsia (3), Prestonia (65 inc Rhodocalyx), Rhabdadenia (3), Rhazya (2), Secondatia (5), Sindechites (1), Spirolobium (1), Stephanostema (1), Stipecoma (1), Streptoechites (1), Strophanthus (39), Temnadenia (3), Thenardia (3), Thoreauea (3), Thyrsanthella (1), Tintinnabularia (3), Trachelospermum (9), Urceola (21 inc Aganonerion, Ecdysanthera, Hymenolophus, Parameria, Xylinabaria, Xylinabariopsis), Vallaris (3), Wrightia (34). 

Asclepiadoideae: Ampelamus (3), Amphineurion (1), Anemotrochus (3), Anisopus (2), Anisotoma (3), Apteranthes (7), Araujia (13 inc Hickenia, Morrenia, Stuckertia), Asclepias (206 inc Aidomene, Odontostelma), Aspidoglossum (37), Aspidonepsis (5), Astephanus (2), Asterostemma (1), Australluma (1), Ballyanthus (2), Barjonia (7), Baynesia (1), Blepharodon (26 inc Anomotassa), Boucerosia (7 inc Frerea), Calciphila (2), Calotropis (3), Campestigma (1), Caralluma (31), Caudanthera (4), Ceropegia (411 inc Brachystelma, Macropetalum, Tenaris), Chlorocyathus (2), Cibirhiza (3), Cionura (1), Conomitra (1), Cordylogyne (2), Cosmostigma (3), Cristobalia (2), Cynanchum (256 inc Adelostemma, Decanemopsis, Dicarpophora, Drepanostemma, Folotsia, Glossonema, Graphistemma, Holostemma, Karimbolea, Mahafalia, Metaplexis, Nematostemma, Odontanthera, Pentarrhinum, Platykeleba, Prosopostelma, Pycnoneurum, Raphistemma, Sarcostemma, Seshagiria, Telminostelma, Voharanga, Vohemaria), Decanema (1), Desmidorchis (14), Diplolepis (14), Dischidanthus (1), Dischidia (118 inc Dolichostegia, Hoyella), Ditassa (112), Dolichopetalum (1), Dregea (7), Duvalia (18), Duvaliandra (1), Echidnopsis (36), Edithcolea (1), Emicocarpus (1), Emplectanthus (3), Eustegia (5), Fanninia (1), Fischeria (8), Fockea (6), Funastrum (21), Glossostelma (12), Gomphocarpus (20), Gongronema (9), Gonolobus (119 inc Microstelma), Gunnessia (1), Gymnema (34 inc Bidaria), Gyrostelma (1), Hemipogon (8), Heterostemma (45 inc Dittoceras), Heynella (1), Hiepia (1), Hoodia (13 inc Trichocaulon), Hoya (534 inc Absolmsia, Anatropanthus, Clemensiella), Huernia (77), Hypolobus (1), Ibatia (26), Jasminanthes (13), Jobinia (25 inc Cyathostelma), Kanahia (2), Kerbera (1), Lachnostoma (11), Larryleachia (6), Lavrania (1), Leptadenia (5), Lygisma (5 inc Costantina), Macroscepis (16), Mahawoa (1), Manothrix (2), Margaretta (1), Marsdenia (305 inc Dalzielia, Gymnemopsis, Harmandiella, Leichardtia, Papuastelma, Thozetia), Matelea (271 inc Dictyanthus, Jacaima, Labidostelma, Lhotzkyella, Microdactylon, Prosthecidiscus, Tetracustelma, Trichosacme), Metastelma (100 inc Meresaldia), Microloma (11), Minaria (22), Miraglossum (7), Monolluma (5), Monsanima (2), Morilloa (4), Nautonia (1), Neoschumannia (3 inc Swynnertonia), Nephradenia (5), Notechidnopsis (1), Oistonema (1), Oncinema (1), Ophionella (2), Orbea (60 inc Orbeanthus, Orbeopsis, Pachycymbium), Oreosparte (1), Orthanthera (6), Orthosia (38), Oxypetalum (135 inc Amblyopetalum, Corollonema, Dactylostelma, Rhyssostelma, Schistogyne, Widgrenia), Oxystelma (2), Pachycarpus (39), Parapodium (3), Pattalias (2), Pectinaria (5), Pentacyphus (3 inc Tetraphysa), Pentasacme (4), Pentatropis (4 inc Strobopetalum), Peplonia (9 inc Gonioanthela, Macroditassa), Pergularia (2), Periglossum (3), Petalostelma (7 inc Lagoa), Phaeostemma (7), Pherotrichis (4), Philibertia (41 inc Amblystigma, Lugonia, Melinia, Mitostigma, Podandra, Steleostemma, Stelmatocodon), Piaranthus (9 inc Huerniopsis), Polystemma (5), Pruskortizia (2), Pseudolachnostoma (8), Pseudolithos (8), Ptycanthera (2), Pycnorhachis (1), Quaqua (20), Rhyssolobium (1), Rhytidocaulon (17), Rhytidostemma (8),Richtersveldia (1),  Riocreuxia (10), Rojasia  (2), Ruehssia (42), Sarcolobus (20 inc Dorystephania, Quisumbingia), Schistonema  (1), Schizoglossum (26), Schizostephanus  (2), Schubertia (6), Scyphostelma (28), Sisyranthus (13), Socotrella (1), Solenostemma (1), Stapelia (31), Stapelianthus (7), Stapeliopsis (8), Stathmostelma (14), Stelmagonum (1), Stenostelma (6), Stephanotis (4), Stigmatorhynchus (2), Tassadia (31 inc Stenomeria), Tavaresia (3 inc Decabelone), Telosma (9), Topea (2), Toxocarpus (33), Tressensia (1), Treutlera (1), Tridentea (8), Tromotriche (11), Tweedia (6), Tylodontia (4), Vailia (1), Vincetoxicum (248 inc Belostemma, Biondia, Blyttia, Diplostigma, Ischnostemma, Merrillanthus, Oncostemma, Pentabothra, Pentastelma, Podostelma, Rhyncharrhena, Sphaerocodon, Spirella, Tylophora, Tylophoropsis, Vincetoxicopsis), Wattakaka (2), White-Sloanea (1), Woodia (3), Xysmalobium (42).

Periplocoideae: Atherandra (1), Baroniella (10), Baseonema (1), Batesanthus (3), Buckollia (2), Camptocarpus (9), Cryptolepis (42), Cryptostegia (2), Decalepis (5 inc Janakia), Ectadium (2), Epistemma (4), Finlaysonia (6), Gymnanthera (2), Hemidesmus (1), Ischnolepis (2 inc Petopentia), Maclaudia (1), Mondia (2), Myriopteron (1), Pentopetia (23), Periploca (17), Phyllanthera (10 Australasia); Raphionacme (36), Sacleuxia (2), Sarcorrhiza (1), Schlechterella (2 inc Pleurostelma); Stomatostemma (1), Streptocaulon (5); Tacazzea (5), Telectadium (3), Zygostelma (1). 

Rauvolfioideae: Acokanthera (5), Allamanda (15), Alstonia (44), Alyxia (106), Ambelania (3), Amsonia (16), Ancylobothrys (7), Anechites (1), Aspidosperma (77), Bousigonia (3), Callichilia (6), Calocrater (1), Cameraria (7), Carissa (9), Carvalhoa (2), Catharanthus (9),  Cerbera (6), Cerberiopsis (3), Chamaeclitandra (1), Chilocarpus (14), Clitandra (1), Condylocarpon (7), Couma (5), Craspidospermum (1), Crioceras (1), Cyclocotyla (1), Cylindropsis (1), Dictyophleba (6), Diplorhynchus (1), Dyera (2), Geissospermum (5),  Gonioma (2), Hancornia (1), Haplophyton (2), Himatanthus (9), Hunteria (12), Kamettia (2), Kopsia (24), Lacmellea (24), Landolphia (63 inc Carpodinus), Laxoplumeria (5), Lepinia (4), Lepiniopsis (2), Leuconotis (4), Macoubea (3), Melodinus (24), Microplumeria (1), Molongum (3), Mortoniella (1), Mucoa (2), Neocouma (2), Ochrosia (44), Orthopichonia (6), Parahancornia (7), Petchia (8 inc Cabucala), Picralima (1), Plectaneia (3), Pleiocarpa (6), Plumeria (19), Pteralyxia (2), Pycnobotrya (1), Rauvolfia (74), Rhigospira (1), Saba (3), Schizozygia (1), Skytanthus (3), Spongiosperma (6), Stephanostegia (2), Strempeliopsis (2), Tabernaemontana (123 inc Stemmadenia, Woytkowskia), Tabernanthe (2), Thevetia (3), Vahadenia (2), Vallesia (11), Vinca (7); Voacanga (13), Willughbeia (16 inc Urnularia),

Secamonoideae: Calyptranthera (13), Genianthus (17), Goniostemma (2), Pervillaea (5), Secamone (~ 100 inc Rhynchostigma), Secamonopsis (2), Toxocarpus (33), Trichosandra (1).

Distribution of Apocynaceae

The Apocynaceae are mostly subtropical to tropical with a few temperate representatives.  They are cosmopolitan in distribution, and they are widely found throughout the entire Americas, including some herbaceous forms found up into Arctic Canada. 

Distribution of Apocynaceae in the Americas

Canadian Genera Include:

Apocynoideae: Apocynum 2 of 4 N temperate spp native in almost all of Canada inc Arctic but exc NU and Labrador, 1 NAM hybrid sp also native in this range.

Asclepiadoideae: Asclepias 15 of 206 Americas & Africa spp native in all S provinces but intro in NL (exc Labrador); Cynanchum 1 of 256 subcosmopolitan spp intro ON; Vincetoxicum 3 of 248 Old World spp intro BC, ON, QC, NB. Rauvolfioideae: Vinca 2 of 7 Mediterranean spp intro BC, ON, QC, NS and NB.

USA Genera Include:

Apocynoideae: Angadenia 1 of 2 Caribbean & SE USA endemic spp native FL, NC; Apocynum 2 of 4 N temperate spp native all of USA inc AK, plus 1 NAM hybrid sp native in this range;  Beaumontia 1 of 9 SE Asia spp intro HI?; Cycladenia monospecific SW USA endemic CA, AZ, UT; Echites 1 of 14 NAM, CAM & Caribbean spp native FL; Mandevilla 4 of 177 former Americas endemic spp native AZ, NM, TX; Nerium monospecific Mediterranean sp intro most of S border states exc NM, also UT, CA; Pentalinon 1 of 2 Mexico, CAM & Caribbean endemic spp native S FL; Rhabdadenia 1 of 3 S NAM & Neo endemic spp native FL; Thyrsanthella monospecific SE USA endemic of OK, TX, MO, AR, LA, IL, IN, KY, TN, MS, AL, GA, FL, SC, NC, VA, DE; Trachelospermum 2 of 9 mostly S+E Asia spp inc 1 sp native and 1 sp intro TX, OK, MO, AR, LA, MS, AL, GA, FL, SC, NC, VA, MD, DE, TN, KY, IL, IN. 

Asclepiadoideae:  Ampelamus 2 of 3 Americas endemic spp native SE USA from NE S to TX and E to PA, S to FL plus ID, AZ, NY; Araujia (inc Morrenia) 2 of 13 former Neo endemic spp intro CA, GA, FL; Asclepias 75 of 206 Americas & Africa spp native (everywhere) and intro (some states) all of USA and native HI; Calotropis 2 of 3 Old World Tropics spp intro CA, FL and HI; Cynanchum 17 of 256 subcosmopolitan spp native and intro most of USA exc WA, OR, WY, MT, CO, ND, SD, inc 1 sp formerly known as Metaplexis intro IA; Funastrum 5-7 of 21 former Americas endemic spp native CA, NV, UT, CO, AZ, NM, TX, OK, AR, FL, now intro India; Gomphocarpus 1 of 20 African & Arabian spp intro CA?; Gonolobus ? of 119 former Americas endemic spp native AZ, KS, OK, TX, MO, AR, LA, IL, IN, KY, TN, MS, AL, GA, FL, NC, SC, VA, MD; Hoya 1 of 54 S Asia & Australasia spp intro HI; Matelea 24 of 271 Americas endemic spp native in all S half of USA from CA E to PA but exc NV, UT, CO; Metastelma ? of 100 Americas endemic spp native AZ, NM, TX, FL; Orthosia ? of 38 Americas endemic spp native MS, FL, GA, SC; Pattalias 1 of 2 S NAM & Caribbean endemic spp native  TX, LA, MS, AL, GA, FL, SC, NC; Polystemma 1 of 5 S NAM + CAM endemic spp native AZ?; Stapelia 1 of 31 S Africa spp intro HI; Vincetoxicum 3 of 248 Old World spp intro CA, NE, KS, MN, MO, MI, WI, IL, IN, KY, OH, PA, NJ, MD, NY, CT, RI, MA, VT, NH, ME.

Periplocoideae: Cryptostegia 2 of 2 Madagascar spp intro TX, FL; Periploca 1 of 17 African spp intro KS, OK, TX, TN, VA, PA, NJ, NY, CT, RI.

Rauvolfioideae:Allamanda 1 of 15 former Neo endemic spp intro FL; Alstonia 1 of 44 pantropical (exc SAM) spp intro FL and HI; Alyxia 1 of 106 SE Asia, Australia & Pacific spp native HI; Amsonia 16 of 16 American & SE Asian spp inc 14 spp native all S USA from CA E to NJ but exc WV and 2 spp intro inc NY, CT, MA, inc 10 endemics to USA, 4 of which are narrow endemics of AZ (2), NM (1), OK + AR (1); Carissa 1 of 9 Old World Tropics spp intro AZ, TX, FL; Catharanthus 1 of 9 Indian & Madagascar spp intro CA, TX, LA, MS, FL, GA, SC, NC, OH and HI; Haplophyton 1 of 2 S NAM & N CAM endemic spp native AZ, NM, TX; Ochrosia 4 of 44 tropical Asia & Pacific spp intro FL, native HI; Plumeria 1 of 19 former Americas endemic spp native FL, now intro SE Asia, Africa; Pteralyxia 2 of 2 spp endemic HI;  Rauvolfia 3 of 74 pantropical spp native FL, intro and native HI; Tabernaemontana 2 of 123 pantropical spp spp native FL, intro HI; Thevetia 1 of 3 former Mexico & Neo endemic spp intro TX, FL, HI?; Vallesia 2 of 11 Americas endemic spp inc 1 sp native and 1 sp intro CA, FL; Vinca 3 of 7 Mediterranean spp intro most of USA exc NV, OK, CO, WY, ND, SD.

Mexico Genera Include:

Apocynoideae: Apocynum 1 of 4 N temperate spp native N Mexico, plus 1 NAM hybrid sp native in this range; Cameraria 1 of 7 spp former Mexico & N Neo endemic spp native SE Mexico, this sp is now intro SE China; Cascabela 5 of 6 former Mexico & Neo endemic spp native all of Mexico inc 3 endemics of Mexico, 1 of which is a narrow endemics of Mch (1), genus now intro pantropical; Echites 7 of 14 NAM, CAM & Caribbean spp native most of Mexico exc BC, BCS, Son, Sin, inc 1 sp endemic to SW+C Mexico; Forsteronia ?? of 41 Neo endemic spp native SW+SE Mexico, Ver, Chp; Laubertia 1 of 4 Mexico & Neo endemic spp endemic most of Mexico exc Ver; Mandevilla ?? of 177 former Americas endemic spp native all of Mexico, genus now intro SE China; Mesechites 1 of 8 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native Mexico exc BC, BCS, Son, Sin, Mex, Cd Mex, Pue, Tlx, Mor; Nerium monospecific Mediterranean sp intro most of Mexico exc BC, BCS, Son, Sin, Ver; Odontadenia 1 of 21 Neo endemic spp native SW+SE Mexico, Chp; Pentalinon 1 of 2 Mexico, CAM & Caribbean endemic spp native SW+C+SE Mexico; Pinochia 2 of 4 Mexico & N Neo endemic spp native SW+SE Mexico, Chp, Ver; Prestonia ?? of 65 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native most of Mexico exc BC, BCS, Son, Sin; Rhabdadenia 1 of 3 S NAM & Neo endemic spp native Ver, Cam, Tab, Yuc, QR, Chp; Thenardia 3 of 3 S Mexico & Honduras endemic spp native SW+C+SE Mexico, inc 2 endemics of SW+C Mexico; Thoreauea 3 of 3 spp endemic to SW Mexico + Ver; Tintinnabularia 2 of 3 Mesoamerica endemic spp native Oax, Chp, Ver, inc 1 narrow endemic of Ver.  

Asclepiadoideae: Ampelamus 2 of 3 Americas endemic spp native Mexico exc Ver, Chips, Tab, Cam, Yuc, QR; Asclepias ?? of 206 Americas & Africa spp native all of Mexico; Blepharodon 1 of 26 spp Mexico & Neo endemic native all of Mexico; Calotropis 1 of 3 Old World Tropics spp intro SW+C+SE Mexico;  Cynanchum ?? of 256 subcosmopolitan spp native all of Mexico; Fischeria 1 of 8 Neo endemic spp native SW+C+SE Mexico; Funastrum 13 of 21 former Americas endemic spp native throughout all of Mexico, inc 3 endemic to Mexico, 1 of which is a narrow endemic of BCN + BCS?, 1 sp now intro India;  Gomphocarpus 1 of 20 African & Arabian spp intro SW Mexico;  Gonolobus ?? of 119 former Americas endemic spp native all of Mexico, now intro Africa; Jobinia ?? of 25 Neo endemic spp native Ver; Macroscepis 4 of 16 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native all of Mexico, inc 2 narrow endemics of Chp (1), Yuc (1); Marsdenia ?? of 305 pantropical spp native all of Mexico; Matelea (inc Dictyanthus 16 spp endemic Mexico) 16+ ?? of 271 Neo endemic spp native all of Mexico; Metastelma ?? of 100 Americas endemic spp native all of Mexico inc Mexican Pacific Is; Orthosia ?? of 38 Americas endemic spp native most of Mexico exc BC, BCS, Son, Sin; Oxypetalum ?? of 135 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native NE+SW+SE Mexico, Ver; Pattalias 2 of 2 S NAM & Caribbean endemic spp native all of Mexico, inc 1 narrow endemic of BCN, BCS; Pherotrichis 4 of 4 Mexico & N CAM endemic spp native most of Mexico exc Ver, inc 3 Mexican endemics of N Mexico (1), SW Mexico (1), Jal + Mch (1); Polystemma 5 of 5 S NAM + CAM endemic spp native NW+C+SE Mexico, Ver, inc 2 spp endemic to Mexico, 1 of which is a narrow endemic of Son; Ruehssia ?? of 42 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native NE+SW+SE Mexico, Ver, Chp; Stelmagonum monospecific endemic of SW Mexico; Tassadia ?? of 31 Neo endemic spp native SW+SE Mexico, Ver. 

Periplocoideae: Cryptostegia 2 of 2 Madagascar spp intro W+SE Mexico.

Rauvolfioideae: Allamanda 1 of 15 former Neo endemic spp intro SW+C Mexico; Alstonia ?? of 44 pantropical (exc SAM) spp native SW+C+SE Mexico; Amsonia 4 of 16 mostly Americas spp native to N Mexico; Aspidosperma ?? of 77 Neo endemic spp native SW+SE Mexico, Ver; Carissa 1 of 9 Old World Tropics spp intro SW+C Mexico; Catharanthus 1 of 9 Indian & Madagascar spp intro SW+SE Mexico; Haplophyton 2 of 2 S NAM & N CAM endemic spp native most of Mexico exc Ver; Plumeria 2 of 19 former Americas endemic spp native all of Mexico, now intro SE Asia, Africa; Rauvolfia ?? of 74 pantropical spp native all of Mexico; Tabernaemontana ?? of 123 pantropical spp native all of Mexico; Thevetia 1 of 3 former Mexico & Neo endemic spp native most of Mexico exc BC, BCS, Son, Sin, sp now intro SE China; Vallesia 8 of 11 Americas endemic spp native all of Mexico, inc 5 narrow endemics of Son (1), Sin (1), BC (1), Jal (1), Oax (1); Vinca 1 of 7 Mediterranean spp intro SW+C+SE Mexico.

Neotropical Genera Include:

Apocynoideae:Allomarkgrafia 10 of 10 Neo endemic spp Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru; Angadenia 2 of 2 Caribbean & SE USA endemic spp native Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, inc 1 Caribbean endemic; Anodendron 1 of 17 S+E + Tropical Asia spp intro Trinidad-Tobago; Asketanthera 4 of 4 Greater Antilles endemic spp of Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti; Bahiella 2 of 2 spp narrow endemics of NE Brazil; Beaumontia 1 of 9 SE Asia spp intro Costa Rica, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras; Cascabela 3 of 6 spp former Mexico & Neo endemic spp native CAM S through tropical SAM to Peru, Bolivia, NE Argentina, SE Brazil (exc NE Brazil), intro Bermuda, Bahamas,  Antilles (exc Cayman Is, Netherlands Antilles), Africa, India, Asia; Echites 13 of 14 NAM, CAM & Caribbean endemic spp of CAM, Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Greater Antilles, Leeward Is, inc 4 narrow endemics of Cuba (2), Costa Rica (1), Panama (1); Forsteronia 41 of 41 Neo endemic spp native Cuba, Jamaica, Trinidad-Tobago, CAM, tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc N Chile); Funtumia 1 of 2 African spp intro Cuba, Puerto Rico, Trinidad-Tobago, El Salvador; Galactophora 6 of 6 SAM endemic spp of Colombia, N+C Brazil, Venezuela, Guyana, Peru, Bolivia; Hylaea 2 of 2 N SAM endemic spp of S Venezuela, N Brazil; Laubertia 3 of 4 Neo endemic spp native Belize, Colombia, Venezuela, N Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, inc 2 narrow endemics of Belize (1), N Brazil (1); Macropharynx 15 of 15 Neo endemic spp of Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama,  Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Brazil, N Argentina; Malouetia ?? of 31 Neo & W Africa spp native CAM (exc El Salvador), Windward Is, Colombia, Venezuela, French Guiana, Suriname, Guyana, Brazil (exc C Brazil), Peru, Bolivia, intro Cuba; Mandevilla 177 of 177 former Americas endemic spp native S USA, Mexico, CAM, Cuba, Jamaica, Trinidad-Tobago, tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc N Chile), now intro SE China; Mesechites 8 of 8 Neo endemic spp native CAM, Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, Trinidad-Tobago, tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc Uruguay and N Chile), inc 6 narrow endemics of Cuba (2), Hispaniola (1), Hispaniola + Jamaica (1), Colombia (1), Peru (1); Neobracea 8 of 8 narrow endemics of Cuba (7) and Cuba + Bahamas (1); Nerium monospecific Mediterranean sp intro CAM, S Brazil; Odontadenia 21 of 21 Neo endemic spp native CAM (exc El Salvador), Hispaniola, Colombia, N+E+C Brazil, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Trinidad-Tobago, intro Windward Is, inc 4 narrow endemics of Brazil (2), COlombia (1), Hispaniola (1); Parahancornia 7 of 7 NW SAM endemic spp of Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, N Brazil, Peru, Bolivia; Pentalinon 2 of 2 Mexico, CAM & Caribbean endemic spp native Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Greater Antilles, SW Caribbean, Leeward & Windward Is, Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua; Pinochia 4 of 4 Mexico & N Neo endemic spp native Guatemala, Belize, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Greater Antilles (exc Cayman Is), inc 2 spp endemic to Greater Antilles; Prestonia 65 of 65 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native CAM, tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc N Chile), Leeward & Windward Is, Trinidad-Tobago; Rhabdadenia 3 of 3 S NAM & Neo endemic spp native CAM, Bahamas, Greater Antilles, Leeward & Windward Is, Trinidad-Tobago, tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc N Chile); Secondatia 5 of 5 Neo endemic spp of Jamaica, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, inc 1 narrow endemic of Jamaica; Stipecoma monospecific SAM endemic of Bolivia, C+E Brazil; Strophanthus 1 of 39 Old World Tropics spp intro Trinidad-Tobago; Temnadenia 3 of 3 SAM endemic spp of Colombia, Brazil (exc N); Thenardia 1 of 3 S Mexico + Honduras endemic spp native  Honduras; Tintinnabularia 2 of 3 Mesoamérica endemic spp native Guatemala, Honduras, inc 1 narrow endemic of Honduras.

Asclepiadoideae: Ampelamus 1 of 3 Americas endemic spp endemic of Colombia; Anemotrochus 3 of 3 Caribbean endemic spp native Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica; Araujia 13 of 13 former SAM endemic spp native Bolivia, C+SE+S Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina, intro C Chile, S USA and pantropical; Asclepias 12 of 206 Americas & Africa spp native CAM, Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Antilles (exc Aruba), Trinidad-Tobago, Galapagos, most of SAM exc Chile, intro N Chile, genus is most diverse in NAM and Africa; Barjonia 7 of 7 Neo endemic spp of Brazil, Suriname, Bolivia; Blepharodon 26 of 26 spp Mexico & Neo endemic spp native CAM, SAM S to Peru, Bolivia, NE Argentina, S Brazil, inc 15 narrow endemics of Colombia (5), Brazil (5), Bolivia (2), Venezuela (2), Guyana (1); Calotropis 2 of 3 Old World Tropics spp intro Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Antilles, Trinidad-Tobago, Colombia, Venezuela, N+C+E Brazil, Paraguay, Bolivia; Cristobalia 2 of 2 SAM spp of endemic Bolivia, N Argentina; Cynanchum 12 of 256 subcosmopolitan spp native in Mexico, CAM, Cuba, Jamaica, tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc N Chile), most of genus is in Old World tropics; Diplolepis 9 of 14 spp S SAM endemic spp native N+C CHile, NW Argentina, inc 4 narrow endemics of N+C CHile (3), C Chile (1), rest of genus endemic to Patagonia Chile & Argentina; Ditassa 112 of 112 SAM endemic spp of Colombia S to N Argentina exc N Chile, Paraguay; Fischeria 8 of 8 Neo endemic spp native CAM (exc El Salvador), Cuba, Jamaica, Trinidad-Tobago, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, NE Argentina; Funastrum 12 of 21 former Americas endemic spp native Antilles ( exc Aruba, Leewards, Netherlands Antilles), Trinidad-Tobago, CAM, tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc N Chile), inc 5 narrow endemics of Guatemala (1), Bolivia (1), Colombia (1), SE Brazil (1), Galapagos (1), 1 sp now intro India; Gomphocarpus 1 of 20 African & Arabian spp intro CAM (exc Belize), Cuba, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Leeward Is, Colombia, Venezuela, Suriname, Brazil, Uruguay, NE Argentina, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia; Gonolobus 119 of 119 former Americas endemic spp native from S USA, Mexico, Greater Antilles (exc Cayman Is), Leeward & Windward Is, CAM, tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc N Chile, Suriname, French Guiana), now intro Africa; Gyrostelma monospecific endemic of C+SE Brazil; Hemipogon 8 of 8 SAM endemic spp of Peru, Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay; Hoya 1 of 54 S Asia & Australasia spp intro Cuba, Trinidad-Tobago, Puerto Rico, Leeward Is; Hypolobus monospecific endemic NE Brazil; Ibatia 26 of 26 Neo endemic spp Panama, Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Lesser Antilles, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Brazil, Paraguay, Ecuador, Bolivia, NE Argentina; Jobinia 25 of 25 Neo endemic spp native Guatemala, Honduras, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, C+S+E Brazil, N Argentina, Uruguay; Kerbera monospecific endemic SE Brazil; Lachnostoma 11 of 11 Neo endemic Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela; Macroscepis 14 of 16 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native CAM (exc Belize), Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, N Argentina, S+SE Brazil, inc 8 narrow endemics of S+SE Brazil (4), Colombia (1), Venezuela (1), Paraguay (1); Manothrix 2 of 2 spp endemic SE Brazil; Marsdenia ?? of 306 pantropical spp native CAM, Greater Antilles (exc Cayman Is), Leeward & Windward Is, Trinidad-Tobago, tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc N Chile); Matelea (inc Dictyanthus, Labidostelma) 271 of 271 Neo endemic spp native USA, Mexico, CAM, Bahamas, Greater Antilles (exc Cayman Is), Leeward & Windward Is, Trinidad-Tobago, tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc N Chile); Metastelma 100 spp of 100 Americas endemic spp native S USA, Mexico, Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Antilles, CAM, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, N+E+S Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, N Argentina; Minaria 22 of 22 SAM endemic spp of Brazil, Bolivia, NE Argentina; Monsanima  2 of 2 narrow endemic spp of E Brazil; Morilloa  4 of 4 narrow endemic spp of E Brazil; Nautonia monospecific E SAM endemic of C+SE+S Brazil, Paraguay, NE Argentina; Nephradenia 5 of 5 N SAM endemic spp of Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, N+E+C Brazil, Bolivia; Orthosia 38 of 38 Americas endemic spp native S USA, Mexico, CAM (exc Belize), Colombia, Venezuela, E+S Brazil, Uruguay, N Argentina, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Bahamas, Greater Antilles (exc Cayman Is); Oxypetalum 135 of 135 Mexico & Neo endemic spp of Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama, Greater Antilles (exc Cayman Is), Leeward Is, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, N Argentina; Pattalias 1 of 2 S NAM & Caribbean endemic spp native Belize, Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Cayman Is, Cuba; Pentacyphus 3 of 3 N+W SAM endemic spp high Andean Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, inc 1 narrow endemic of Caldas Colombia; Peplonia 9 of 9 SAM endemic spp of Peru, Bolivia, E+C+S Brazil, Paraguay; Petalostelma 7 of 7 SAM endemic spp of Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, N Argentina; Phaeostemma 7 of 7 SAM endemic spp of Venezuela, Suriname, disnjunct S+SE Brazil, NE Argentina; Pherotrichis 1 of 4 Mexico & N CAM endemic spp native Guatemala; Philibertia 41 of 41 spp W+S SAM endemic spp of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, N+C Chile, Argentina; Polystemma 2 of 5 S NAM & CAM endemic spp native Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica; Pruskortizia 2 of 2 N SAM endemic spp of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, N Brazil; Pseudolachnostoma 8 of 8 Neo endemic spp of Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela, N Brazil, Trinidad-Tobago; Ptycanthera 2 of 2 spp endemic Cuba, Hispaniola; Rhytidostemma 8 of 8 Neo endemic spp of Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, C+N Brazil, Ecuador, Peru; Rojasia 2 of 2 SAM endemic spp of Bolivia, Paraguay, S Brazil, NE Argentina; Ruehssia 42 of 42 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native Costa Rica, Panama, Leeward & Windward Is, tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc N Chile, Uruguay); Schistonema monospecific endemic Peru; Schubertia 6 of 6 SAM endemic spp of Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Brazil, N Argentina; Scyphostelma 28 of 28 Neo endemic spp of Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia; Stephanotis 1 of 4 Madagascar spp intro Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Leeward Is, Trinidad-Tobago; Tassadia 31 of 31 Neo endemic spp native S Mexico, Cuba, Trinidad-Tobago, Belize, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, tropical SAM S to Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, S Brazil; Topea 2 of 2 narrow endemic spp of NE Argentina; Tressensia monospecific endemic NE Argentina; Tweedia 6 of 6 SAM endemic spp Bolivia, N+C Chile, Argentina, Paraguay, inc 4 narrow endemics of C Chile (2), N+C Chile (1), NW Argentina (1); Tylodontia 4 of 4 narrow endemic spp of Cuba; Vailia monospecific W SAM endemic of Ecuador, Bolivia, Peru.  

Periplocoideae: Cryptostegia 2 of 2 Madagascar spp intro CAM (exc Guatemala, Belize), Bahamas, Antilles, Trinidad-Tobago, Colombia, Venezuela, N+NE+C Brazil.

Rauvolfioideae: Allamanda 15 of 15 former Neo endemic spp native Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, NE Argentina, intro in Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, Trinidad-Tobago, Galapagos and pantropical; Alstonia ?? of 44 pantropical spp native CAM (exc Belize), intro Trinidad-Tobago, absent SAM; Ambelania 3 of 3 SAM endemic spp Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, N+NE Brazil, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname; Anechites monospecific Neo endemic Honduras S to Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Greater Antilles (exc Cayman Is); Aspidosperma 77 of 77 Neo endemic spp native from S Mexico S through CAM and tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc N Chile), Hispaniola, Trinidad-Tobago, Venezuelan Antilles; Cameraria 7 of 7 spp former Mexico & N Neo endemic spp native Belize, Guatemala, Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, Greater Antilles, inc 6 single island endemics of Cuba (4), Hispaniola (1), Dominican Republic (1), 7th sp is wider ranging and now intro SE China; Carissa 1 of 9 Old World Tropics spp Honduras, Nicaragua, Bahamas, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Leeward & Windward Is, Trinidad-Tobago; Catharanthus 1 of 9 Indian & Madagascar spp intro CAM, Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Antilles (exc Cayman Is, Venezuelan Antilles), SW Caribbean, Galapagos, French Guiana; Cerbera 1 of 6 Old World Tropics spp intro Trinidad-Tobago; Chamaeclitandra monospecific African sp intro Trinidad-Tobago; Condylocarpon 7 of 7 Neo endemic spp of Nicaragua, Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, NE Argentina, Trinidad-Tobago; Couma 5 of 5 Neo endemic spp Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Suriname, Guyana, French Guiana, N+NE Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia; Geissospermum 5 of 5 SAM endemic spp of Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, N+E Brazil, Peru, Bolivia; Hancornia monospecific SAM endemic of Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, Peru; Haplophyton 2 of 2 S NAM & N CAM endemic spp native Cuba, Guatemala; Himatanthus 9 of 9 Neo endemic spp Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, Venezuela, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname; Kopsia 1 of 24 mostly Australasian spp intro Trinidad-Tobago; Lacmellea 24 of 24 Neo endemic spp native Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, N+C+E Brazil, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana; Landolphia 1 of 63 African spp intro Trinidad-Tobago; Laxoplumeria 5 of 5 Neo endemic spp of Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, N+C+SE Brazil, French Guiana; Macoubea 3 of 3 Neo endemic spp Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, N+NE Brazil; Microplumeria monospecific N SAM endemic of Colombia, Venezuela, N Brazil; Molongum 3 of 3 N SAM endemic spp of Colombia, Venezuela, N Brazil; Mortoniella monospecific CAM endemic of Belize, Nicaragua, Costa Rica; Mucoa 2 of 2 N SAM endemic spp of Colombia, Venezuela, N Brazil, Peru; Neocouma  2 of 2 N SAM endemic spp of Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, N Brazil; Pacouria 3 of 3 N SAM endemic spp of Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, N+SE Brazil, Bolivia, Peru; Plumeria 19 of 19 former Americas endemic spp native CAM, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Antilles (exc Aruba, Netherlands Antilles), SW Caribbean, intro Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Netherlands Antilles, Trinidad-Tobago, and 2 spp now intro tropical Asia, Africa; Rauvolfia ?? of 74 spp pantropical spp native CAM, Antilles (exc Netherlands Antilles), tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc Uruguay, N Chile); Rhigospira monospecific N SAM endemic spp of Colombia, Venezuela, N Brazil, Peru; Skytanthus 3 of 3 narrow SAM endemic spp of E Brazil (2), N+C Chile (1); Spongiosperma 6 of 6 N SAM endemic spp of Colombia, Venezuela, N+NE Brazil; Strempeliopsis 2 of 2 narrow single island endemic spp of Cuba (1), W Jamaica (1); Tabernaemontana ?? of 123 pantropical spp native Antilles (exc Aruba, Netherlands Antilles), SW Caribbean, tropical SAM S to Peru, Bolivia, NE Argentina; Thevetia 3 of 3 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native CAM, Cuba, Colombia, Venezuela, N+C Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, NE Argentina; Vallesia 6 of 11 Americas endemic spp native Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Costa Rica, Colombia, Venezuela, N Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, N Argentina, inc 2 narrow endemics of Galapagos (1), Venezuela (1); Vinca 2 of 7 Mediterranean spp intro Guatemala, Costa Rica, Colombia, Venezuela, Bolivia, C Chile, Uruguay.    

Patagonia Genera Include:

Apocynoideae: Elytropus monospecific endemic C+S Chile, S Argentina. 

Asclepiadoideae:  Asclepias 1 of 206 Americas & Africa spp native S Argentina; Diplolepis 10 of 14 spp S SAM endemic spp native SC+S Chile, S Argentina, inc 5 narrow endemics of S Argentina (3), SC+S Chile (1), Patagonia (1); Philibertia ?? of 41 spp W+S SAM endemic spp native C Chile, S Argentina; Tweedia 2 of 6 spp SAM endemic native C Chile, S Argentina. 

Additional Information and References

  • Visit Lyrae’s Dictionary of Botanical Terms to learn the terminology of botanists. Note that if you hover over most of the words in the articles you can also get definitions from them there.
  • Willis, Lyrae (2023).  Plant Families of North America.  Not yet published. This is where all of the family descriptions come from. Below should be most of my references for this.
  • Canadensys: Acadia University, Université de Montréal Biodiversity Centre, University of Toronto Mississauga, University of British Columbia. http://data.canadensys.net/explorer (accessed 2020 – current)
  • Delta: Watson, L., and Dallwitz, M.J. 1992 onwards. The families of Flowering Plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval. Version: 2nd May 2020. delta-intkey.com’. Accessed Spring through fall of 2020.
  • GBIF.org (2020), GBIF Home Page. Available from: https://www.gbif.org
  • Naturalista: CONABIO http://www.naturalista.mx Accessed 2020 – current.
  • Neotropikey: Milliken, W., Klitgård, B. & Baracat, A. eds (2009 onwards). Neotropikey – Interactive key and information resources for flowering plants of the Neotropics. www.kew.org/neotropikey.com (accessed 2020 – current).
  • Patagonia Wildflowers: Wildflower Identification Site. https://patagoniawildflowers.org/ Accessed throughout the fall of 2020.
  • POWO (2019). Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet; http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/
  • Stevens, P. F. (2001 onwards). Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 14, July 2017 [more or less continuously updated since]. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/
  • The Plant List (2013). Version 1.1. Published on the Internet; http://www.theplantlist.org/ (accessed 2020 to 2021). No longer updated. Use WFO below.
  • USDA, NRCS. 2020. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 2 June 2020). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA; accessed throughout fall of 2020.
  • Wikipedia: The free encyclopedia. (2004, July 22). FL: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Retrieved throughout 2019-current, from https://www.wikipedia.org
  • WFO (2022): World Flora Online. Published on the Internet; http://www.worldfloraonline.org. Accessed Spring 2022 – current

9 Oct, 2022