The Ehretiaceae are a small family that was only somewhat recently (2016) pulled out of the closely related Boraginaceae family. I only discovered this somewhat recently since so many sources still refer to it as a subfamily of the Borage Family instead. This guide explains how to identify the Ehretiaceae family and how they differ from the new, narrower definition of the Boraginaceae.
My only experience with this mostly tropical family is with Tiquilia, which is a lovely, low-growing herb that is relatively common in the dry soils of the American Southwest. It has pretty, almost succulent leaves, and I always thought it would make a nice ground cover in a xeriscape. However, this means that all of my photos are of that genus. For people living in North America, this is by far the most common member of this family that you will see, although there are other shrubby, small tree, and parasitic species, especially once you get into Mexico. I will add more as I find them!
Common Botanical Description of the Ehretiaceae Family
If you’re new to plant morphology, this guide is a perfect beginner’s description for learning to identify the Ehretiaceae family without needing to know any scientific jargon. Below this section is additional information on uses and morphology, followed by pictures of individual species found in North America. But for researchers or those wanting to learn a more in-depth version, refer to the Scientific Botanical Descriptionbelow the images for highly detailed scientific descriptions and genus-level distribution data.
Leaves and Stemsof the Ehretiaceae: This family is mostly woody shrubs or trees, often with fibrous bark and whitish twigs, but perennial herbs and parasitic plants that don’t use chlorophyll are also seen. Leaves are simple (not compound) and arranged alternately along the stem on stalks, although sometimes they are reduced to tiny scales. Margins may be smooth or sometimes with rounded teeth.
Flowersof the Ehretiaceae: Flowers usually have both male (stamens) and female (ovary, stigma, and style) parts in the same flower (bisexual), but occasionally separate male and female flowers are seen on separate male and female plants (called dioecious). Flowers and sepals are usually fused at the base with 5 lobes.
Reproductive Featuresof the Ehretiaceae: There are typically 5 stamens that often stick out past the throat of the flower tube and are sometimes attached to the petals. The ovary is usually surrounded by a nectary disk, and it has a style on top that is typically divided into 2 branches.
Fruitsof the Ehretiaceae: Fruits are mostly drupes (fleshy fruits with a stony pit—like a cherry) with 1-2-seeded stones or 4 nutlets.
Uses of Ehretiaceae
The Ehretiaceae, especially the Ehretia genus, are widely used for medicine (pain, fever, and dysentery), timber and furniture, and their edible drupes, especially in Asia, Africa, and parts of the Americas. They are used for treating ailments like fever, dysentery, and pain, with wood for furniture and edible fruits.
Morphology of Ehretiaceae in North America
As I currently only have the herbaceous-looking Tiquilia genus, which are not particularly representative of the family, I will add morphology photos when I acquire more photos.
Some Ehretiaceae Species Found in North America
Tiquilia canescens—Shrubby Tiquilia
The shrubby tiquilia looks a lot more like an herb, but technically you could call it a shrub or sub-shrub because it is woody at the base. It is a short, very low-growing, spreading plant with gray-green, fleshy, egg-shaped leaves that look almost succulent and are often rather congested on its branches. Its 5-lobed tubular flowers are white to pinkish. It is native to the American Southwest in California, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, New Mexico, and Texas and in Northern Mexico in Chihuahua, Sonora, and Baja California.
Tiquilia greggii—Plumed Crinklemat
The plumed crinklemat is another herbaceous-looking low-growing shrub, generally with wider internodes, giving it a more spindly appearance. The leaves are also gray-green and somewhat succulent, but what stands out most are the feathery calyxes that appear in rounded masses with usually only 1-2 flowers blooming at a time. The feathery calyx apparently persists and assists in dispersing the seeds. This one is more rare, and in the United States it is only found in southern New Mexico and the southwestern corner of Texas, being most common throughout northern and central Mexico instead.
Scientific Botanical Description of the Ehretiaceae
Learn to identify the Ehretiaceae family based on its new narrow definition after being removed from the Boraginaceae.
Habit & Leaf Form of the Ehretiaceae Family
This family is mostly woody shrubs or trees, often with fibrous bark, oxidizing stems, and whitish twigs. Perennial herbs, hairy or hairless, are also seen, especially Tiquilia. Also, plants in the Pholismateae tribe are achlorphyllous root parasites with glandular hairs and leaves that are reduced to scales.
Leaves are simple, alternate, petiolate, entire to crenate, or occasionally dissected, and without stipules. In achlorophyllous root parasites, the leaves are typically reduced to scales.
Flowers of the Ehretiaceae Family
Inflorescences are axillary or sometimes terminal, usually laxly cymose, sometimes congested, and occasionally in few-flowered corymbs or solitary. In parasitic plants, they are condensed and more or less capitate.
Flowers are mostly bisexual, although occasionally plants are dioecious. Flowers are 4-5-merous, usually with radial symmetry. The often long, persistent calyx has 5 lobes, fused or free to the bases; aestivation is quincuncial or sometimes imbricate. The corolla is made of fused petals with 5 lobes; it is usually rotate, campanulate, or urn-shaped; aestivation is quincuncial or sometimes imbricate.
Androecium of the Ehretiaceae Family
There are 5 stamens that are often epipetalous and generally exserted.
Gynoecium of the Ehretiaceae Family
The ovary is 1-4-carpelled, superior, and generally subtended by a disk-like nectary. There is a bifid terminal style with an elongated club-shaped or head-shaped stigma. Placentation is apical to axile. There are usually 1 fertile ovule per carpel, apotropous, with integument 6-12 cells across, and epidermal cells anticlinally elongated or not. Parasitic members may have 10 or more ovules.
Fruit of the Ehretiaceae Family
Fruits are drupes, often surrounded by a persistent, accrescent calyx. They generally contain 1–2 seeded stones or four nutlets. Occasionally the fruit is a schizocarp. Seeds often have copious endosperm, but some seeds have none.
Taxonomy of Ehretiaceae
There are about 155 species in 10 genera in the Ehretiaceae family in the Boraginales order of the core eudicots (dicots). The Ehretiaceae family has frequently been treated as a subfamily of the Boraginaceae. A 2016 revision by the Boraginales Working Group, however, confirmed its status as a distinct family, and this is what is also listed on the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, which I use as my most current authoritative source. This definition of the Ehretiaceae includes the Lennoaceae nested within it.
Genera:
Bourreria (48), Cortesia (?), Ehretia (50),Halgania (17 Australian endemic),Keraunea (5),Lennoa (1),Lepidocordia (2),Pholisma (3),Rochefortia (12), and Tiquilia (28).
Key Differences From Similar Families
The Ehretiaceae was recently split from the Boraginaceae, but the Boraginaceae can be distinguished by usually being herbs and virtually always having a gynobasic style rather than a terminal one in the Ehretiaceae.
The Cordiaceae was also recently split from the Boraginaceae, and it too is mostly woody trees and shrubs with fleshy drupes, but they have characteristic 4-lobed rather than bifid stigmas.
The Heliotropiaceae has also recently been split out of the Boraginaceae family, but it’s a family of more herbs and some trees that also produce drupes. However, it can usually be distinguished by its often deeply lobed ovary and cone-shaped stigma.
Distribution of Ehretiaceae
The Ehretiaceae are a mostly tropical and subtropical family throughout the tropics, though noticeably absent from eastern South America. There is also a strong presence of this family in the arid American Southwest.
Distribution of Ehretiaceae in the Americas
Canadian Genera Include:
Absent.
USA Genera Include:
Bourreria 3 spp native FL; Ehretia 1sp native TX; Pholisma 2-3 NAM endemic spp native CA and AZ; Tiquilia 9 spp native in all of W half of the USA, except for MT, also in MO.
Mexico Genera Include:
Bourreria spp native all of Mexico; Ehretia spp native all of Mexico; Lennoa monospecific endemic of Mexico, CAM, Colombia, and Venezuela; Lepidocordia 1 of 2 spp endemic Americas native SW, SE Mexico; Pholisma 2-3 NAM endemic spp. native to northern Mexico; Rochefortia spp neoendemic native to much of Mexico exc NW and C; Tiquilia ?? spp native throughout all of Mexico.
Neotropical Genera Include:
Bourreria spp native CAM, Antilles, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador; Ehretia spp pantropical native in CAM, Antilles, N+E Brazil, N Argentina; Keraunea 5 of 5 spp endemic to eastern Brazil; Lennoa monospecific endemic of Mexico, CAM, Colombia, and Venezuela; Lepidocordia 2 of 2 spp endemic S Mexico, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Venezuela, Guyana, and N Brazil; Rochefortia 12 of 12 spp neo endemic Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Antilles, Colombia, Venezuela, and Peru; Tiquilia spp native Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, N Chile, and NW+S Argentina.
Patagonia Genera Include:
Tiquilia native of S Argentina.
Additional Information and References
Visit Lyrae’s Dictionary of Botanical Terms to learn the terminology of botanists. Note that if you hover over most of the words in the articles, you can also get definitions from them there.
Willis, Lyrae (Unpublished). Plant Families of North America. This is where all of the family descriptions come from. Below should be most of my references for this, along with my own personal observations throughout North America.
Canadensys: Acadia University, Université de Montréal Biodiversity Centre, University of Toronto Mississauga, University of British Columbia. http://data.canadensys.net/explorer (accessed 2020 – current)
Watson, L., and Dallwitz, M.J. (1992+). The Families of Flowering Plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval. Version: 2nd May 2020. delta-intkey.com. Accessed spring through fall of 2020.
FNA (1993+). Flora of North America. https://floranorthamerica.org/Main_Page. Accessed 2022-current.
Neotropikey: Milliken, W., Klitgård, B., & Baracat, A. eds. (2009+). Neotropikey: Interactive key and information resources for flowering plants of the Neotropics. www.kew.org/neotropikey.com (accessed 2020 – current).
POWO (2019+). Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet: http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/
Michael G. Simpson 2021, Ehretiaceae, in Jepson Flora Project (eds.) Jepson eFlora, Revision 9, https://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/eflora/eflora_display.php?tid=84713, accessed on April 24, 2026.
The Boraginaceae family has undergone major revisions over the years, including several small families and then more recently, having them removed. This description teaches how to identify the Boraginaceae based on the currently accepted, much narrower definition of the family that excludes Heliotropiaceae, Hydrophyllaceae, and others, which I will all cover separately.
What I love about this family is their often instantly blue-to-violet flowers almost always arranged in unique clusters called “scorpioid cymes.” They are truly beautiful; I even love their coarse hairs that can cause rashes in some people, but to me, it just makes them even more beautiful. But I might be biased too, since I think all flowers are beautiful in their own way.
Common Botanical Description of the Boraginaceae Family
If you’re new to plant morphology, this common botanical description is a perfect beginner’s description for learning to identify the Boraginaceae family, with no need to know any scientific jargon not explained in the description. Below this section is additional information on uses and morphology photos to help you identify the family, followed by pictures of individual species found in North America. But for researchers or those wanting to learn a more in-depth version, refer to the Scientific Botanical Descriptionbelow the images for highly detailed scientific descriptions, taxonomic information, and genus-level distribution data in North, Central, and South America.
Leaves and Stemsof the Boraginaceae: Most members are herbaceous plants, with occasional woody shrubs, trees, or vines, often accompanied by characteristic coarse hairs that can cause skin reactions. The leaves vary in size but are always simple (not compound) and are usually arranged alternately along the stem; however, in rare cases, the lower leaves may be in opposite pairs. Leaves are usually thin to lance-shaped, and most have entire margins, but in rare cases they may be toothed. Another characteristic feature of the family is that the leaves never have small leaf-like appendages called stipules at their base, often seen in other families.
Flowersof the Boraginaceae: The flowers of this family are mostly bisexual, containing both male (stamens) and female (ovary, style, stigma) parts in the same flower. What is most characteristic of this and closely related families is the flowers in coiled clusters called “scorpioid cymes.” Boraginaceae flowers are usually regular, meaning it can be divided in half on multiple planes of symmetry, and contain usually 5 sepals that may be free or joined at the base into a tube and are often covered with hairs. They also have 5 petals that are usually blue or purple (but may be pink, yellow, or white) and often have a collection of scales in the throat.
Reproductive Featuresof the Boraginaceae: The stamens can vary, being free or joined, but there are always five fertile stamens (with pollen-producing anthers), and they are always attached in the throat of the flower. The ovary is deeply four-lobed, and there is a single style attached at its base.
Fruitsof the Boraginaceae: The fruits are always non-fleshy nutlets or sometimes dry dehiscent fruits called schizocarps that split apart when mature.
Uses of Boraginaceae
Many members of the family are used ornamentally for their lovely flowers, while others are used medicinally, and still others are used as a natural source of dye.
Common cultivated family members include forget-me-not (Myosotis), Symphytum, Borago, and more. Many species have been introduced as ornamental plants or weeds, e.g., the genera Anchusa, Borago, Cynoglossum, Echium, Myosotis, and Symphytum.
Morphology of Boraginaceae in North America
Learn to identify the Boraginaceae family with morphology photos
Some Boraginaceae Species Found in North America
Boraginoideae Subfamily
Anchusa officinalis—Common Alkanet
This beautiful introduced wildflower has long, lance-shaped leaves that become smaller on shorter petioles further up the stem. Most of the plant is covered in fine, stiff hairs, and it produces deep violet-blue flowers with five spreading, rounded lobes. It is native primarily to the Mediterranean region, but also to most of Europe and western Asia. It is now an occasional introduced weed in North America, like this one growing wild not far from human settlements in Peachland, British Columbia, Canada.
Buglossoides arvensis—Corn Gromwell
An annual herb up to 40 cm long with stems that branch from the base, producing terminal racemes of pale blue to white flowers with forward-facing hairs on the outside and narrowly lance-shaped leaves that typically have a central groove on the upper surface. Native throughout Eurasia and northern Africa but widely introduced in Canada and the United States, as well as southern South America. This one was found in a well-maintained park in Vernon, British Columbia, Canada.
Lithospermum ruderale—Wayside Gromwell
Unlike most members of the Boraginoideae subfamily, this perennial herb is native to North America, endemic to western North America from British Columbia east to Saskatchewan in Canada and from Washington State south to California and east to Montana south to Colorado in the United States. It also produces narrowly lance-shaped leaves with fine, coarse hairs and light yellow tubular flowers. It is common in dry soil with good drainage in sunny locations in its range. This one was in Princeton, British Columbia.
Cynoglossoideae Subfamily
Andersonglossum virginianum—Southern Wild Comfrey
This pretty wildflower has large comfrey-like leaves that give it one of its common names. The leaves are slightly hairy and tend to clasp the hairy stem at their base. It produces pale bluish flowers on erect, branching stems that often turn a violet color as they age. This is an uncommon endemic native of the eastern United States from Texas east to Florida and north to Vermont, where it normally grows in forested areas.
Cryptantha crassisepala—Thick-Sepaled Cryptanth
This very hairy annual herb only grows up to about 15 cm tall, with 2-6 cm long leaves and small white flowers with very thick and hairy sepals. However, examination of fruits is often needed for a positive ID. It is a southern North American endemic from California east to Kansas and Texas as well as throughout northern Mexico. It tends to grow in arid and semi-arid locations; this one was on a roadside in New Mexico.
Oreocarya aka Cryptantha flava—Yellow Cryptantha
Most sources still refer to Oreocarya as a separate genus, but authoritative sources like APG and USDA now consider it a synonym for Cryptantha, so we use both names here. This narrow endemic of Colorado, Wyoming, Arizona, Utah, and New Mexico in the United States is known for its cheerful yellow flowers and thinner but still very hairy sepals. This one was in the Wilson Arch area, Utah.
Another lovely Cryptantha endemic to the American Southwest, this time in Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico. It has white tubular flowers with conspicuous yellow appendages in their throats and the hairy sepals we are used to seeing in the genus. This one was found growing on a dry roadside outside of Cuba, New Mexico.
Myosotis arvsenis—Field Forget-Me-Not
An annual or short-lived perennial herb with stalkless, hairy leaves and pretty inflorescences of blue flowers with white to yellow throat appendages. The flowers are in typical scorpioid cymes, but they are best visualized while the flowers are still in bud as they elongate and straighten as they bloom. This species is originally native to northern Eurasia but is now widely introduced to northern North America. This was on the side of a logging road near Sechelt, British Columbia, Canada.
Myosotis macrosperma—Largeseed Forget-Me-Not
An annual herb with hairy, stalkless leaves with a prominent midrib and tiny white flowers in condensed cymes with hairy sepals and green bracts. This one is a North American native found in disturbed areas throughout the southeastern United States north into southern Ontario, Canada.
Lappula occidentalis—Western Stickseed
This hairy annual has stalked basal leaves that are mostly oblong with rounded tips and narrower, stalkless stem leaves with pointed tips. They are best known for their elongated inflorescences of tiny white to pale blue flowers, followed by fruits containing four nutlets, each with a row of slender prickles. It is native throughout western North America from Alaska south to northern Mexico and east to Manitoba, Canada, and Iowa, United States, with some disjunct populations in the eastern United States.
Scientific Botanical Description of the Boraginaceae
Learn to identify the Boraginaceae family based on the newer, more narrow definition of the family.
Habit & Leaf Form of the Boraginaceae Family
Most are annual or perennial herbaceous plants from taproots with occasional woody shrubs, trees, or self-supporting (usually) vines. They are often hispid or scabrid with coarse hairs that may contain SiO₂ or CaCO₃, which can cause adverse skin reactions in sensitive individuals. They may or may not have a basal aggregation of leaves. Helophytic, mesophytic, or xerophytic.
Leaves are minute to medium-sized, usually alternate or sometimes alternate and opposite below. They are simple, flat, herbaceous, petiolate to sessile, usually non-sheathing or sometimes sheathing in basal rosettes, not gland-dotted, and epulvinate. The lamina is entire, usually narrow, linear to lanceolate. Leaves lack stipules. Lamina margins are mostly entire, rarely crenate or dentate. Domatia may be present.
Flowers of the Boraginaceae Family
Plants are usually hermaphrodites or occasionally gynodioecious (Echium), with predominantly entomophilous pollination via Hymenoptera. Flowers are usually aggregated in coiled (scorpioid) cymes that may appear doubled in some species; coiled cymes typically elongate in fruit. Rarely are flowers solitary. Inflorescences are terminal or axillary.
Flowers bracteate or not; usually regular or irregular and somewhat zygomorphic (Echium and relatives); usually 5 merous, tetracyclic. Free hypanthium absent. Hypogynous disk present or absent. Perianth with distinct calyx and corolla: 10 (11–13); 2 whorled; isomerous (mostly) or anisomerous (sometimes in Plagiobothrys).
Calyx 5 (usually) or 5–8 (sometimes Plagiobothrys); 1 whorl; free or connate basally with lobes shorter to longer than the tube; degree of gamosepaly 0.1–0.5, often covered with trichomes. Calyx persistent; imbricate, open in bud or valvate (rarely).
Corolla 5; 1 whorled; often appendiculate with a corona of scales from the throat protecting the nectar; lobes shorter than to longer than the tube. Corolla imbricate or contorted; rotate, campanulate to hypocrateriform or tubular; unequal, regular, or often bilabiate in Echium. They are often blue or purple in color but may also be pink, white, or yellow.
Androecium of the Boraginaceae Family
There are 5 unbranched androecial members that are adnate midway down or in the throat of the corolla tube; all are equal or unequal, free or coherent, and 1-whorled. Stamens: 5; exclusively fertile; not didynamous or tetradynamous; isomerous with perianth, arranged opposite sepals; with filaments or sometimes appearing sessile; inserted or exserted. Filaments appendiculate or not. Anthers cohering, free, or connivent; dorsifixed to basifixed; dehiscing via longitudinal slits; introrse; tetrasporangiate; appendaged or unappendaged.
Gynoecium of the Boraginaceae Family
The gynoecium is usually 2-carpeled or 4–5 carpeled (some Trigonotis). Pistil 2- or 4-celled (usually via false septa) or 8-10-celled (via false septa in some Trigonotis). Gynoecium is syncarpous with a superior ovary. Ovary 2 locular (nearly always) but often appears 4 locular via false septa. Gynoecium median. Style 1 gynobasic from an often deeply 4-lobed ovary. Stigmas 1–2: when simple, often 2-lobed but may also be capitate or minute; nearly always dry type; papillate. Placentation is basal. Ovules 2 per locule (usually separating into 1-ovuled portions); horizontal to ascending; epitropous (micropyle directed upwards); with dorsal raphe.
Fruit of the Boraginaceae Family
The fruits are primarily non-fleshy nutlets, dehiscent, indehiscent, or a schizocarp with 4 or 8–10 (sometimes Trigonotis) mericarps.
Taxonomy of Boraginaceae
There are 1,793 species in 94 genera in the Boraginales order of the core eudicots (dicots). This family recently underwent major revisions, including the removal of the Hydrophyllaceae, Heliotropiaceae, Cordiaceae, and Ehretiaceae. As a result, many genera have changed in the family; the list below is current, although the number of species in each may not be current, as this is always changing as new information is gathered.
There are 3 currently accepted subfamilies:
Boraginoideae is a large subfamily concentrated in the Mediterranean region, with some also in East Asia, Africa, and South America, but it is also introduced elsewhere. They are mostly perennial herbs, some annuals, and some shrubs; their flowers typically have a single line of symmetry and basal scales, the gynobase is flat, and the nutlets have a basal attachment scar.
Cynoglossoideae is the largest subfamily with a nearly cosmopolitan distribution. It is a group of mostly herbs (annual to perennial) with some shrubs, leaves with obvious secondary venation, bractless flowers, a broadly pyramidal to flat gynobase, and often compressed nutlets that are ventrally attached with a large triangular scar.
Echinochiloideae is a small subfamily with only 3 genera located in Mexico, south to northeastern Argentina, plus the Canary Islands, Africa, and east to western India. They are characterized by having densely hairy corolla throats and punctate stigmas (subterminal, sterile tips, bilobed or notched) with fruits that are laterally compressed nutlets.
The Hydrophyllaceae had been included as a subfamily of Boraginaceae before, though it has recently been removed and made a separate family again. They have very similar-looking scorpioid inflorescences in similar blue-to-violet colors. However, the Hydrophyllaceae always have dry capsule fruits, while the Boraginaceae have nutlets. The ovaries and seeds also differ.
The Heliotropiaceae has also recently been split out of the family, and it too has scorpioid cymes, though not all members do. However, it can be distinguished by having fewer bristly hairs that are always eglandular, leaves that are usually conduplicate, an ovary that is still often deeply lobed but has a cone-shaped stigma, and fruits that are drupes with 4 stones or are dry schizocarps.
The Ehretiaceae is another recent split. It is a small family with only 7 genera of mostly shrubs and trees as opposed to mostly herbs, and while the Boraginaceae have a gynobasic style, most of this family (excluding Tiquilia) has a terminal style with a bifid stigma.
The Cordiaceae is another recent split, but these are also mostly trees and shrubs with characteristic 4-lobed stigmas and fleshy drupes as opposed to mostly herbs with 2-lobed stigmas and producing nutlets in the Boraginaceae.
Distribution of Boraginaceae
The Boraginaceae are a cosmopolitan family found around the tropics, warm and cool temperate, and even arctic climates, although they are predominantly found in warm temperate climates, with a strong Mediterranean concentration. In the Americas, the family is found in Canada, the USA, Mexico, Central America, and South America.
Distribution of Boraginaceae in the Americas
(Note this has not yet been updated after family revisions so there may be inaccuracies in genera and numbers.)
Canadian Genera Include:
Adelinia monospecific NAM endemic native BC; Amsinckia 6 spp native BC intro YT, AB, SK; Anchusa 3 spp intro all S provinces exc AB, NL; Andersonglossum 1 of 3 spp NAM endemic native all S provinces exc Labrador, also in YT; Asperugo monospecific intro BC, AB, SK, MB (and GL); Borago 1 sp intro all S provinces but ephemeral in ON, QC, NS, NL; Buglossoides 1 sp intro BC, MB, ON, QC, NS; Cerinthe 1 sp intro QC?; Cryptantha 11 spp native BC, AB, SK; Cynoglossum 1 sp intro all S Canada exc NL, PE; Echium 2 spp intro all of S Canada exc Labrador; Eritrichium 6 spp native YT, NT; Hackelia 6 spp native all of Canada exc NU, NS, PE, NL; Lappula 2 spp native YT, NT, BC, AB, SK, MB and intro ON, QC, NS, NB, PE, NL; Lithospermum 8 spp native BC, AB, SK, MB, ON, QC and intro NB; Mertensia 7 spp native all of Canada inc Arctic (and GL); Myosotis 9 spp native BC, AB, YT, NT, ON, QC, NB, NS, PE, NL and intro SK, MB (and GL); Nonea 2 spp intro AB, QC; Omphalodes 2 spp intro BC, ON, QC; Oreocarya (s/t as a ~ Cryptantha) 1 of 63 NAM endemics native BC, AB, SK; Pectocarya 1 sp native BC; Pentaglottis 1 sp intro BC; Plagiobothrys 5 spp native BC, AB, SK, MB and intro YT, ON, QC, NB; Pulmonaria 2 spp intro ON, QC, NS; Symphytum 3 spp intro in all S Canada exc Labrador; Trigonotis 1 sp BC?.
USA Genera Include:
Adelinia monospecific NAM endemic native WA, OR, CA; Amsinckia 10 spp native W USA MT S to NM and all W, intro ND, NE, OK, TX, WI, IL, MS, OH, PA, NY, CT, MA, NH, ME, VA, NC, SC and intro AK, HI; Anchusa 5 spp intro much of USA exc NV, AZ, NM, NE, KS, OK, MO, AR, LA, MS, AL, GA, FL, SC, IN, WV, VT; Andersonglossum 3 of 3 spp NAM endemic native USA inc 1 sp endemic OR, CA, 1 sp endemic E USA MI, IL, IN, OH, PA, NJ, NY, VT, CT, KY, TN, MO, AL, FL, LA, TX and the 3rd spp native S Canada and SD, IA, WI, IL, IN, NJ, NY, NH, ME; Antiphytum 2 spp native NM, TX; Asperugo monospecific intro CA, CO, IL; Borago 1 sp intro WA, OR, CA, UT, MT, ND, MI, IL, MN, WI, TN, OH, VA, WV, MD, PA, NJ, NY, CT, RI, MA, VT, NH, ME; Bothriospermum 1 sp intro HI; Brunnera 1 sp intro MO, OH, NY; Buglossoides 1 sp intro most of USA exc NV, AZ, NM; Carmona(~Ehretia) 1 sp intro HI; Cordia 11 spp intro and native AZ, TX, FL; Cryptantha 82 spp native in W USA from ND S to TX and all W, inc MA, native and intro AK; Cynoglossum 9 spp intro and native entire USA and intro HI; Dasynotus monospecific endemic ID; Echium 7 spp intro most of USA inc AK but exc NV, AZ, ND, MS, AL, FL; Eremocarya 2 of 2 spp S NAM endemic native OR, CA, NV, UT, AZ, NM, TX; Eritrichium 3 spp native AK, WA, OR, ID, WY, MT, CO, UT, NM; Hackelia 29 spp native almost all USA exc FL, native and intro AK; Greeneocharis 2 of 2 spp endemic Americas native W USA WA, OR, CA, ID, NV, AZ, UT, CO, inc 1 endemic CA; Harpagonella 1 of 2 spp S NAM endemic native CA, AZ; Johnstonella of 17 spp endemic Americas native CA, NV, UT, AZ, NM, TX; Lappula 4 spp native and intro most USA inc AK but exc LA, MS, AL, FL, GA, VA; Lithospermum 17 spp native and intro all USA; Macromeria (~ Lithospermum) 1 sp native AZ, NM; Mertensia 18 spp native most of USA inc AK exc TX, OK, LA, FL; Mimophytum 1 of 10 spp S NAM endemic native TX; Myosotis 11 spp native and intro most of USA inc AK exc ND, intro in HI; Nonea 3 spp intro TN, PA, NY, ME; Omphalodes 2 spp native and intro OR, TX; Oreocarya 32 of 63 NAM endemics native W USA ND S to TX and all states W; Onosmodium (~Lithospermum) 4 spp native most of USA exc ME, WA, OR, ID, CA, NV, AZ; Pectocarya 8 spp native WA, OR, ID, WY, CA, NV, UT, AZ, NM, TX; Plagiobothrys 43 spp native WA, OR, CA, ID, MT, WY, CO, NV, UT, AZ, NM, ND, SD, NE, WI, MI, IL, AR, LA, NC, PA, MA, ME, intro and native AK; Pulmonaria 1 sp intro NY, VT; Symphytum 3 spp intro WA, OR, CA, ID, MT, WY, UT, CO, NM, MI, WI, MN, MO, AR, TN, KY, GA, NC, VA, WV, IN, OH, PA, MD, DE, NJ, NY, CT, RI, MA, VT, NH, ME and AK; TTournefortia 2 spp native in TX, FL; Trigonotis 1 sp native CA of otherwise Russian/Asian family; Varronia 1 sp native TX, FL.
Mexico Genera Include:
Amphibologyne monospecific endemic NE, SW Mexico; Amsinckia spp native N Mexico; Antiphytum spp native much of Mexico exc Chp, Cam, Tab, Yuc, QR; Borago intro SW+C Mexico; Cryptantha spp native N Mexico; Cynoglossum spp intro NE, SW Mexico; Eremocarya 2 of 2 spp S NAM endemic native BC, NW Mexico; Hackelia spp native all of Mexico; Harpagonella 2 of 2 spp S NAM endemic native BC, BCS, Guadalupe Is., Son; Johnstonella 17 of 17 spp endemic Americas native most of Mexico exc Chp, Tab, Cam, Yuc, QR; Lappula spp native N Mexico; Lithospermum spp native all of Mexico; Mimophytum 10 of 10 spp S NAM endemic native Coa, NL, Tam, Dgo, SLP, Pue, Qro, Hgo, Gto, Mex, Tlx, Ver, NE, C Mexico, Ver, inc 9 endemics of Mexico; Oncaglossum monospecific endemic NE,C, SW Mexico; Oreocarya of 63 NAM endemics native throughout N half of Mexico; Tournefortia spp native all of Mexico.
Neotropical Genera Include:
Amsinckia 13 of 13 spp originally endemic temperate to tropical W Americas (W NAM and W SAM Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia. Chile, Argentina), but now intro Europe, Africa, E USA; Anchusa intro Argentina; Antiphytum 13 of 13 spp endemic S USA, Mexico, S Brazil and Uruguay; Borago intro Guatemala, Honduras, Greater Antilles, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, C Chile, Uruguay, Argentina; Buglossoides intro Bolivia, Argentina, Uruguay; Cryptantha,108 of 108 spp endemic Americas W Canada, W USA (and intro NY), N Mexico with most in USA, and a disjunct distribution in SAM Peru, Bolivia, N+C Chile, NW + S Argentina; Cynoglossum intro Jamaica, Haiti, Dominican Republic; Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, SE Brazil, Argentina, C+S Chile, Juan Fernandez Is.; Echium intro S SAM C+S Chile, Argentina,Uruguay, S Brazil; Greeneocharis 1 sp native NW+ S Argentina; Hackelia 55 spp native Americas, Europe, Asia, Australia, in neo native Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, NW Argentina; Iberodes 1 sp intro C Chile; Johnstonella 17 of 17 spp endemic Americas SW USA, Mexico and disjunct SAM in Peru, N Chile, NW Argentina; Lappula 82 spp pan-temperate N+S, intro Venezuela, native N+S Argentina, S Chile, most in N Europe and N Asia; Lithospermum 78 spp worldwide temperate to subtropical and tropical mountains, in neo region native Mexico, Guatemala, and Andes of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia;Moritzia 3 of 3 spp neo endemic native Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, SE+S Brazil; Myosotis intro neo in Guatemala, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, N+C Chile, N Argentina, SE Brazil, Uruguay, Trinidad-Tobago; Nesocaryum monospecific endemic of Desventurados Is. Off the coast of NC Chile; Pectocarya 12 of 12 spp endemic Americas Canada S to S SAM (absent CAM), in neo native Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, N+C Chile, Argentina, Plagiobothrys native Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, C+S Chile, NW+S Argentina; Rotula 2 of 2 spp native N+E Brazil inc 1 endemic N Brazil, the other spp also native in Africa, India, Asia; Selkirkia 4 of 4 spp SAM endemic inc 1 endemic Juan Fernandez Is, 2 endemic to C+S Chile and 1 endemic Colombia, Ecuador; Symphytum intro Dominican Republic, Haiti, C Brazil, NE Argentina; Thaumatocaryon 3 of 3 spp endemic S+SE Brazil, Paraguay, NE Argentina; Tournefortia native neo in CAM, Antilles, tropical SAM S to Bolivia, Paraguay, S Brazil.
Patagonia Genera Include:
Amsinckia spp native throughout Patagonia; Anchusa intro S Argentina; Asperugo monospecific intro Patagonia region; Borago intro C Chile, C+S Argentina; Buglossoides 1 sp intro S Argentina; Cynoglossum intro throughout Patagonia; Echium intro C+S Chile, C+S Argentina; Greeneocharis 1 sp native S Argentina; Lithospermum intro S Argentina; Myosotis native S Chile and S Argentina, with intro spp at the N end of region in SC Chile, SC Argentina as well as Falkland Is.; Pectocarya spp native S Argentina, SC Chile; Plagiobothrys native C+S Chile, S Argentina; Selkirkia 2 of 4 spp SAM endemic native SC and S Chile.
Additional Information and References
Visit Lyrae’s Dictionary of Botanical Terms to learn the terminology of botanists. Note that if you hover over most of the words in the articles, you can also get definitions from them there.
Willis, Lyrae (Unpublished). Plant Families of North America. This is where all of the family descriptions come from. Below should be most of my references for this, along with my own personal observations throughout North America.
Canadensys: Acadia University, Université de Montréal Biodiversity Centre, University of Toronto Mississauga, University of British Columbia. http://data.canadensys.net/explorer (accessed 2020 – current)
Watson, L., and Dallwitz, M.J. (1992+). The Families of Flowering Plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval. Version: 2nd May 2020. delta-intkey.com. Accessed spring through fall of 2020.
FNA (1993+). Flora of North America. https://floranorthamerica.org/Main_Page. Accessed 2022-current.
Neotropikey: Milliken, W., Klitgård, B., & Baracat, A. eds. (2009+). Neotropikey: Interactive key and information resources for flowering plants of the Neotropics. www.kew.org/neotropikey.com (accessed 2020 – current).
POWO (2019+). Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet: http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/
Stevens, P. F. (2001+). Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 14, July 2017 [more or less continuously updated since]. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/. This is the authoritative source on currently accepted families, subfamilies, tribes, and genera.
USDA, NRCS. 2020. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 2 June 2020). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC, USA; Accessed 2020-present.
The Campanulaceae, or Bellflower family, is part of the Asterales order (related to sunflowers) of the core dicots. It is a widespread family found on every continent except Antarctica, and it is a popular garden ornamental for its lovely flowers. The first time I found one was on a grassy bluff next to the ocean, and I automatically knew what family it was in because of the pretty blue bell-shaped flowers with the long style that the family is best known for, although other colors and flower shapes do exist in the family.
Common Botanical Description
If you’re new to plant morphology, this guide is a perfect beginner’s description, with no need to know any scientific jargon. Below this section is additional information on uses and morphology photos to help you identify the family, followed by pictures of individual species found in North America. But for researchers or those wanting to learn a more in-depth version, refer to the Scientific Botanical Descriptionbelow the images for highly detailed scientific descriptions and genus-level distribution data.
Leaves and Stems: Most members are perennial herbs, but some annuals, biennials, shrubs, or small trees exist in the family; mostly they live on land, but some are aquatic. One key identifying feature is the milky juice that is released when they are damaged.
Leaves are usually arranged alternately on the stem but are sometimes in opposite pairs or whorls. They are usually simple (not compound), linear, lance-shaped, oblong, egg-shaped, or rounded with variously toothed margins but are occasionally divided into opposite pairs of leaflets.
Flowers: Flowers are often medium to large and showing, appearing singly or in various spikes or umbrella-shaped clusters. Flowers are typically bell-shaped or star-shaped, giving them the common name of bellflowers. Most are in shades of blue, but they can also be found in white, yellow, red, pink, or purple. Flowers are often symmetrical but can be irregular or “two-lipped,” like in Lobelia.
Reproductive Features: Reproductive features are specialized to ensure successful pollination by insects. There are usually 5 stamens (male parts) that may be separate or joined in a long column surrounding the female parts (ovary, style). Most species have an inferior ovary located below where the petals attach. A single long style comes up through the center of the flower.
Fruits: The fruit is almost always a dry capsule that splits open through valves, irregular slits, or other ways to release the seeds. Very rarely the fruit is a fleshy berry (mostly in the Lobelioideae subfamily). Some seeds are equipped with wings to aid in dispersal.
Uses of the Campanulaceae Family
With plenty of showy flowers, this family is popular for garden ornamentals, especially from Lobelia, Wahlenbergia, Codonopsis, Jasione, and more than 120 species of Campanula.
Morphology of Campanulaceae in North America
Learn how to identify the Campanulaceae family with morphology photos
Some Campanulaceae Species of North America
Campanuloideae Subfamily
Campanula alaskana—Alaska Bellflower
Herbaceous perennial from rhizomes with weak stems with larger basal leaves and small, linear stem leaves. Flowers are large and showy, bell-shaped, nodding, and up to 3 cm long in blue-violet to lavender colors. It is often confused with Campanula rotundifolia but has broader leaves, and it is only found along the North Pacific from Washington State north to Alaska.
Campanula petiolata—Western Harebell
This was a recent taxon split from the much more widespread Campanula rotundifolia, with which it shares many characteristics but tends to be more upright with stronger stems. The long style with a 3-lobed tip visible in the photo is common among Campanula rotundifolia and close relatives like these. Some taxonomists do not recognize this or Campanula alaskana as separate species from Campanula rotundifolia.
Campanulastrum americanum—American Bellflower
A tall, erect annual or biennial common in moist woods. Unlike most bellflowers, it has flat star-shaped flowers in elongated spikes, and it has alternate lance-shaped leaves compared to the often linear ones seen in Campanula species.
Triodanis biflora—Venus’s Looking Glass
This species is an annual herb of disturbed areas with alternate leaves that do not wrap around the stem. It has pinkish to purple bell flowers with widely spreading lobes that make them look like a star. Native to the southern and eastern United States, Mexico, and South America.
This species is very similar to Triodanis biflora, with a similar native range, though perhaps a bit more widespread. It can usually be differentiated by the leaves shown here that clasp and nearly wrap all the way around the stem. However, they can hybridize, making identification difficult.
Lobelioideae Subfamily
Lobelia appendiculata—Pale Lobelia
This species is an annual unbranced herb that grows up to 60 cm tall with oblong to egg-shaped leaves that clasp partway around the stem. It has pale blue to white two-lipped flowers (2 upper lobes, 3 larger lower ones) in a loose terminal spike. It is native to the south-central USA.
Lobelia cardinalis—Cardinal Flower
This herbaceous perennial grows up to 1.2 m tall and is found mostly in or near bogs, riverbanks, swamps, or wet forests. It has large lance-shaped to oval leaves with toothed margins. Flowers are large and bright red with 5 deeply cut lobes. Plants with pink or white flowers occasionally occur. It is native from southeastern Canada through the eastern and southern USA, south to northern Colombia.
Lobelia spicata—Pale Spike Lobelia
This short-lived perennial is often found flowering below taller grasses in sunny or semi-shade prairies, woodlands, and disturbed areas. They have simple, variously elongated-shaped leaves with shallow teeth and are most known for their sometimes densely flowered spikes of white or pale blue flowers, like those in the photo. Native to southern Canada and the eastern USA.
Scientific Botanical Description
Flowers of the Campanulaceae Family
Plants are hermaphrodites. Pollination is entomophilous and conspicuously specialized (via modifications of the style with sterile tissue covering the stigmas at anthesis). Usually active in Lobelioideae (otherwise usually passive). Flowers are solitary or aggregated in cymes, racemes, spikes, and umbels; scapiflorous or not; terminal or axillary; with or without involucral bracts; pseudanthial or not. Flowers are medium to large; regular to very irregular; 5-merous; tetracyclic. Perianth has a distinct calyx and corolla; 10 or 16–20 (Michauxia); 2-whorled; isomerous. Calyx 5 or 8–10 (Michauxia); 1 whorled; free or connate (depending on interpretation, with the tube nearly always being united with the ovary); basally appendaged (e.g., Campanula with adjoining pairs of sepals contributing to each appendage); spurred or neither; imbricate or valvate. Epicalyx is sometimes present. Corolla 5 or 8–10 (Michauxia); 1 whorled; connate (usually) or free (e.g. Jasione); valvate; often campanulate with long tubular bells or open starry ones; bilabiate or regular; mostly blue, but also white, yellow, red, pink, or purple; spurred (e.g., Heterotoma) or not spurred.
Androecium of the Campanulaceae Family
5 or 8–10 (Michauxia). Androecial members are free of the perianth or adnate low down on the corolla; free of one another or coherent; 1 whorled, sometimes forming an elongate column around the style. Stamens 5 or 8–10 (Michauxia); exclusively fertile; isomerous with the perianth; opposite sepals; alternating with the corolla members; filantherous or laminar and filantherous (e.g., being laminate below the filaments in Wahlenbergia). Filaments are sometimes basally appendiculate (e.g., Campanula sulphurea) or not. Anthers cohering (sometimes terminating an androecial column, e.g., Centropogon, Burmeistera) or separate; dehiscing via longitudinal slits; introrse; tetrasporangiate.
Gynoecium of the Campanulaceae Family
2, 3, 5 (8 in Ostrowskia) or 8–10 carpelled (Michauxia). The pistil is 2 or 3 celled or occasionally 5 (6–10) celled. The gynoecium is synstylovarious and inferior (usually) or superior (rarely). Ovary 2, 3, or 5(6–10) locular. Styles 1. Stigmas equal in number to carpels (2, 3, or up to 10); wet or dry type; papillate or non-papillate; Group II or IV type. Placentation axile. Ovules 10–50 per locule; horizontal; non-arillate; anatropous; unitegmic; tenuinucellate.
Fruit of the Campanulaceae Family
fleshy (rarely) or non-fleshy (~ always); dehiscent septicidal, loculicidal, valvular or irregularly splitting capsule or rare indehiscent berry. Seeds are endospermic, oily, and rarely starchy. Seeds small; winged or wingless.
Habit & Leaf Form of the Campanulaceae Family
Mostly perennial herbs with some annual or biennial; a few shrubs or small trees; laticiferous; heights from 8 cm to over 2 m tall (excluding trees). With or without a basal aggregation of leaves. The trees are pachycaul. Variously hydrophytic to xerophytic; when hydrophytic rooted. Leaves of hydrophytes are submerged and emergent. Leaves usually alternate or sometimes are opposite or whorled. They are petiolate or subsessile, sheathing or non-sheathing, and when sheathing they have free margins. Leaves are not gland-dotted, are epulvinate, exstipulate, and are usually simple or sometimes compound–pinnate. Lamina, when simple, is dissected or entire. When entire, it is linear, lanceolate, oblanceolate, oblong, ovate, obovate, or orbicular. When dissected, it is pinnatifid or palmatifid. Leaves exstipulate. Lamina margins are crenate, serrate, or dentate.
Taxonomy of Campanulaceae
There are 2,380 species in 84 genera of the Asterales order of the core Eudicots (dicots).
The family is divided into five subfamilies, 2 of which are very widespread:
Campanuloideae is a large subfamily characterized by polysymmetric flowers, stamens that sprawl at the bottom of the corolla tube after the anthers have dehisced, an inferior ovary, and long-hairy styles. These are widespread and found worldwide, with especially high diversity in the north temperate Old World.
Lobelioideae is a subfamily of herbs or small trees with terminal, occasionally axilary inflorescences and large to small resupinate flowers. Stamen filaments are connate at least apically, and anthers are connate. They are mostly tropical, especially common in the New World with a major center of diversity in the Andes and over 100 endemic species found on the Hawaiian Islands. They are not present in the Arctic and are absent from the Near East and central Asia.
Nemacladoideae is a small subfamily of tiny annuals (rarely perennial) with sub-opposite leaves, racemes without bracteoles, and small flowers that are not resupinate. Anthers are connivent; filaments are connate apically and may be free at the base. These are restricted to the southwestern USA (especially California) and northwestern Mexico.
Cyphioideae is a group of perennial herbs (twining vines) and shrubs with tuberous roots. The fused corolla is split almost to the base into two groups, usually with three upper lobes and two lower lobes. Stamen filaments may be free or connate. Mostly in Southern Africa but also in East Africa and the Cape Verde Islands.
Cyphocarpoideae is a small subfamily endemic to Chile and is made of annual or perennial spiny herbs with deeply lobed leaf margins and foliaceous bracts. The upper corolla lobe is sub-hooded, and the lower lobes show three ridges.
Campanulaceae is easy to distinguish by the combined presence of latex, simple leaves, and an inferior ovary. Material from Acanthaceae, Lamiaceae, and Rubiaceae with a long reddish or orange corolla tube is often placed in Campanulaceae, but they differ in leaves, usually opposite, and free stamens and anthers. Allied families such as Pentaphragmataceae, Stylidiaceae (including Donatiaceae), Sphenocleaceae, and Goodeniaceae (including Brunoniaceae) can be distinguished from Campanulaceae by the lack of latex. Goodeniaceae have a style with apical hairy pollen-collecting indusium and stylar cup; Pentaphragmataceae and Stylidiaceae have extrorse anthers.
Distribution of the Campanulaceae
The Campanulaceae are found from frigid zones to tropical climates with a cosmopolitan distribution excluding tropical Africa and Antarctica. Found from deserts to rainforests and the Arctic, but the majority of species are by far northern temperate species.
In the Americas, the Campanulaceae are found through Canada, including the Arctic (and Greenland), and south through the USA, Mexico, Central, and South America.
Distribution of Campanulaceae in the Americas
NOTE: This data was gathered 4-5 years ago and may not reflect current genus names and status.
Canadian CampanulaceaeGenera Include:
Campanula 19 spp native in all of Canada inc the Arctic (and GL), inc 1 sp intro BC; Downingia 2 of 13 spp originally endemic Americas native BC, AB, SK, intro temperate Europe; Githopsis 1 of 4 spp W NAM endemic native S Vancouver Island BC; Heterocodon monospecific W NAM endemic native BC; Isotoma 1 sp intro BC; Jasione 1 sp intro BC?; Lobelia 2 spp native BC, ON, QC and ephemeral NB; Triodanis 1 of 6 spp endemic Americas native BC, ON, QC.
USA CampanulaceaeGenera Include:
Asyneuma 1 sp native OR, CA; Brighamia 2 of 2 spp endemic HI; Campanula 34 spp inc 33 native most of USA inc AK but exc OK, AR, LA, MS, and 1 sp intro NV, NH; Clermontia 22 of 22 spp endemic HI; Cyanea 80 of 80 spp endemic HI; Delissea 15 of 15 spp endemic HI; Downingia 13 of 13 spp originally endemic Americas native WA, ID, MT, OR, WY, CA, NV, UT, inc 9 USA endemics, mostly in CA, another spp now intro temperate Europe; Githopsis 4 of 4 spp W NAM endemic native MT, WA, OR, CA, inc 2 endemic CA; Heterocodon monospecific W NAM endemic native WA, OR, CA, NV, ID, MT, WY, CO; Hippobroma monospecific intro FL, HI; Howellia monospecific endemic WA, ID, MT, OR, CA; Jasione 1 sp intro WA, OR, NC, MD, PA, DE, NY, CT, NJ, RI, MA; Legenere monospecific Americas disjunct endemic of CA + Patagonia; Legousia 1 sp intro CA, PA; Lobelia 43 spp native and intro entire USA inc HI, native AK; Nemacladus 17 of 18 spp W NAM endemic native OR, ID, CA, NV, UT, AZ, NM inc 8 endemic USA 5 of which are endemic CA; Palmerella monospecific endemic S CA + N BC; Platycodon 1 sp intro NY, PA, NC and HI; Porterella monospecific endemic OR, ID, WY, CA, UT, AZ; Trematolobelia 8 of 8 spp endemic HI; Triodanis 6 of 6 spp originally endemic Americas native all USA exc NV, intro HI, E Asia, Australia, inc 5 USA endemics 2 of which are endemic TX; Wahlenbergia 2 spp intro TX, LA, AR, MS, AL, GA, SC, NC, FL.
Mexico CampanulaceaeGenera Include:
Campanula spp native NE Mexico; Centropogon of 213 spp endemic Americas native most of Mexico exc NW; Diastatea 5 of 6 spp endemic Americas native most of Mexico (exc NW), inc 3 Mexico endemics; Downingia 1 of 13 spp originally endemic Americas native NW Mexico, intro temperate Europe; Githopsis 1 of 4 spp endemic W NAM native BC, Guadalupe Is; Heterotoma monospecific Neo endemic native NE+C+SW+NE Mexico; Hippobroma monospecific intro all of Mexico; Nemacladus 10 of 18 spp W NAM endemic native NW Mexico, mostly in BC, inc 1 endemic BC; Palmerella monospecific endemic S CA + N BC; Pseudonemacladus monospecific endemic NE Mexico; Triodanis 1 of 6 spp originally endemic Americas native Mexico exc SE and intro Asia, Australia; Wimmeranthus monospecific endemic SW Mexico.
Neotropical CampanulaceaeGenera Include:
Burmeistera 123 of 123 spp Neo endemic Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru; Centropogon 213 of 213 spp endemic Mexico, CAM (exc Belize), tropical SAM to Bolivia, C+SE Brazil inc 2 spp endemic Lesser Antilles; Cyphocarpus 3 of 3 spp endemic N+C Chile; Diastatea 3 of 6 spp endemic Americas native CAM (exc Belize), Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, NE Argentina; Heterotoma monospecific Neo endemic native Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica; Hippobroma longiflora originally endemic Jamaica but widely intro tropical Americas, Madagascar, India, tropical Asia etc; Lobelia large cosmopolitan genus with 65 spp native Mexico, CAM, Antilles, all of SAM exc Guyana and inc Galapagos; Lysipomia 32 of 32 spp endemic Andes of SAM from Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia; Siphocampylus 238 of 238 spp Neo endemic Costa Rica, Panama, Greater Antilles, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil (exc N), Paraguay, N Argentina, Uruguay; Triodanis 1 of 6 spp originally endemic Americas native Guatemala, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, S+SE Brazil, Uruguay, Argentina, intro Jamaica, Dominican Republic, Asia, Australia; Wahlenbergia large pantropical genus with 6 spp Neo endemic E+S Brazil (inc 1 Brazil endemic), Colombia, French Guiana, Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Paraguay, Argentina, C+S Chile, Uruguay.
Patagonia Campanulaceae Genera Include:
Campanula spp intro S Argentina, Falkland Is; Downingia 1 of 13 spp originally endemic Americas native Patagonia and also native in California; Legenere monospecific Americas disjunct endemic of CA + Patagonia; Lobelia spp native Patagonia inc Falkland Is and intro South Georgia Is; Triodanis 1 of 6 spp originally endemic Americas native S Argentina; Wahlenbergia 1 sp native Patagonia.
Additional Information and References
Visit Lyrae’s Dictionary of Botanical Terms to learn the terminology of botanists. Note that if you hover over most of the words in the articles, you can also get definitions from them there.
Willis, Lyrae (Unpublished). Plant Families of North America. This is where all of the family descriptions come from. Below should be most of my references for this, along with my own personal observations throughout North America.
Canadensys: Acadia University, Université de Montréal Biodiversity Centre, University of Toronto Mississauga, University of British Columbia. http://data.canadensys.net/explorer (accessed 2020 – current)
Watson, L., and Dallwitz, M.J. (1992+). The Families of Flowering Plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval. Version: 2nd May 2020. delta-intkey.com. Accessed spring through fall of 2020.
FNA (1993+). Flora of North America. https://floranorthamerica.org/Main_Page. Accessed 2022-current.
Neotropikey: Milliken, W., Klitgård, B., & Baracat, A. eds. (2009+). Neotropikey: Interactive key and information resources for flowering plants of the Neotropics. www.kew.org/neotropikey.com (accessed 2020 – current).
POWO (2019+). Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet: http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/
The Apiaceae family is widespread globally but is particularly common in northern temperate zones. It is well known for its many edible foods and herbs, including carrots, celery, parsley, dill, and many, many more. Most plants have a characteristic smell and possess small flowers in umbels, making the family fairly easy to spot in the field.
The Apiaceae are part of the Apiales order of core dicot flowering plants. The very closely related Araliaceae family has many overlapping characteristics. In general, though, Apiaceae are usually herbs that produce dry fruits that split into 2 segments when mature (schizocarps), while the Araliaceae are usually shrubs or trees and usually produce berry-like drupes (soft fruits with a pit inside, like a cherry).
Common Botanical Description
If you’re new to plant morphology, this guide is a great beginner’s description for learning to identify the Apiaceae family, with no need to know any scientific jargon. For researchers or those wanting to learn a more in-depth version, check out the Scientific Botanical Description below.
Leaves and Stems of the Apiaceae: Most plants are aromatic (malodorous to pleasant) annual, biennial, or perennial herbs. Their stems are often hollow between the nodes and are typically grooved or ribbed like celery and are often covered with hairs. The leaves are arranged alternately on the stem and often have sheaths or wrap around the stem. The leaves are often compound, made of many smaller leaflets.
Flowers of the Apiaceae: Flowers are usually rather small but are grouped into often large, flat-topped clusters called umbels for how they resemble the ribs of an umbrella. Each flower typically has five free white or yellow petals, or occasionally pink or purple. Flowers in the center of the cluster are often symmetrical, while those on the outer edge often have larger outer petals and smaller inner petals.
Reproductive Features of the Apiaceae: Flowers are bisexual, with both female (ovary, style, and stigma) and male (stamens) parts in the same flower. There are 5 free (unjoined) stamens. There is a single inferior ovary (located below where the petals attach), with two styles (pollen-collecting tubes) on top that often have thickened bases.
Fruits of the Apiaceae: Fruits are not fleshy but dry “schizocarps” that split into two parts, each containing a single seed when mature.
Uses and Cautions of Apiaceae
Many members of the Apiaceae family are used for culinary purposes, including Daucus (carrot), Pastinaca (parsnip), Apium (celery), Petroselinum (parsley), Pimpinella (anise), Carum (caraway), Anethum (dill), Anthriscus (chervil), Foeniculum (fennel), and Levisticum (lovage), to name some of the more common ones. Ornamental ones include Eryngium, Angelica, Heracleum, Trachymene, and others; however, many ornamentals have been modified with enlarged bracts or sepals and are not representative of the family.
Many Apiaceae are also used medicinally in folk, herbal, and Chinese medicines to treat a wide variety of ailments.
Still other Apiaceae members have notoriously poisonous resins or alkaloids such as Cicuta, Conium (hemlocks), Aethusa (fool’s parsley), and others are phototoxic (Heracleum mantegazzianum).
Morphology of Apiaceae in North America
Some of the Apiaceae Species I have Covered So Far
Apioideae Subfamily
Anthriscus sylvestris—Cow Parsley
Herbaceous perennial, 60 – 170 cm tall with hollow, striated, and grooved stems that are green with purple splotches and tiny hairs. Leaves are 2-3 times pinnate, about 45 cm long, and appear fern-like. Flowers are white, small, in compound umbels, and have downy oval bracteoles with red tips on the umbelets. Peduncles are hairless and grooved. Native to Eurasia and Africa, widely introduced in the Americas.
Bifora Americana—Prairie Bishop
Herbaceous annual to 80 cm tall with deeply divided leaves with threadlike leaflets and tiny white flowers in compact compound umbels; petals have notched tips. The fruit is a schizocarp. Endemic to the southern USA in Texas, Oklahoma, and Arkansas. This native Apiaceae was found in Oak Trail Shores, TX, USA.
Chaerophyllum procumbens – Spreading Chervil
Herbaceous annual 15 – 50 cm tall from slender branching shiny and finely hairy stems. Mostly hairless doubly compound pinnate leaves are fern-like in appearance. Flowers in small terminal compound umbels with 2 – 6 umbellets, each with 1 – 7 small white flowers that bloom before the umbel finishes expanding. Endemic to eastern North America.
Chaerophyllum tainturieri – Hairyfruit Chervil
Herbaceous annual to 80 cm tall with erect stems, opposite bipinnately compound hirsute leaves. Flowers in few-flowered axillary umbels (not compound). The oblong schizocarp fruits are also visible. Native to the southeastern USA with disjunct populations in Arizona and New Mexico. This Apiaceae member was found in Suffolk, VA, USA.
Cicuta douglasii – Western Water Hemlock
Herbaceous semi-aquatic perennial from thick tuberous roots. Inner tubers and stem bases have horizontal chambers used to help identify them. Leaves are alternate compound pinnate with 3 – 10 cm leaflets with jagged margins. Flowers in 12.5 cm compound umbels with numerous small white flowers. Interestingly, this Apiaceae is the most poisonous plant native to North America. It is endemic to the Pacific Northwest, mostly in BC, Canada.
Cicuta maculata – Spotted Cowbane
Herbaceous, rhizomatous perennial with a hollow, erect stem to 1.8 m tall. Compound leaves with several lanceolate, pointy-tipped, serrated leaflets 2 – 10 cm long each. Flowers in compound umbels with many white or whitish flowers. The whole plant is poisonous. Native throughout North America from northern Canada to southern Mexico.
Conium maculatum—Poison Hemlock
Herbaceous biennial 1.5 – 2.5 m tall, hairless, with smooth, green, hollow stems usually streaked with red or purple. Leaves are 2 – 4 times pinnately compound, finely divided, and lacy, about 50 cm long. Flowers are small and white in loose compound umbels. Native to Eurasia and Africa, widely introduced and invasive in North America.
Herbaceous perennial from a taproot with a basal rosette of 3 times pinnately compound leaves. Flowers are in compound umbels in yellow. The fruit is a schizocarp. This Apiaceae member is narrow native endemic of the Sacramento and Guadalupe Mountains of New Mexico and Texas, USA.
Daucus carota—Wild Carrot
Herbaceous biennial, 30–120 cm tall, has a roughly hairy, stiff, solid stem. Tripinnate, finely divided leaves are 5 – 15 cm long and alternate. Flowers are small, whitish, in dense, flat-topped terminal umbels 8 – 15 cm wide. Fruits are schizocarps that develop as the umbels contract and become congested. Native throughout the temperate Old World and widely introduced in the Americas.
Daucus pusillus—American Wild Carrot
Slender, herbaceous annual to 60 cm tall with hairy stems and finely dissected fern-like leaves with umbels of white flowers (lacking a central purple flower as in D. carota), with feathery bracts that extend beyond the flowers. Native throughout the temperate Old World and widely introduced in the Americas.
Heracleum mantegazzianum – Giant Cow Parsnip
Herbaceous perennial 2 – 5 m tall with a hollow, rigid, erect green stem with prominent red-purple splotches and coarse white hairs. Leaves are about 1 m wide, deeply lobed, with incised margins. White or green-white flowers in compound umbels, flat-topped, up to 1 m across. Flowers may be radially or bilaterally symmetric. Eurasian native; widely introduced and invasive. Causes phototoxicity and contact dermatitis.
Heracleum maximum—Cow Parsnip
Herbaceous perennial plant to 3 m tall with hollow, densely hairy stems that have few to no purple splotches. Leaves are 3-lobed, may be deeply so but not incised, and are up to 40 cm across. White flowers in compound umbels up to 12″ across may be flat-topped or rounded with outer flowers often much larger than inner flowers. Native to Canada & most of the USA, plus East Asia.
Lomatium grayi—Gray’s Lomatium
Herbaceous perennial with pinnately compound dark-green leaves. Compound umbels each with hundreds of yellow flowers on leafless stalks. Hairless fruits are elliptic with lateral wings. The plant smells of parsley. Endemic to the western United States. This was on Antelope Island, Utah.
Lomatium foeniculaceum – Desert Biscuitroot
Herbaceous perennial herb up to 30 cm tall from a taproot; stemless; pubescent leaf petioles and peduncle grow from the ground. Leaves are 2–4 times compound–pinnate, up to 30 cm long. Flowers are small, yellow, or purplish in compound umbels. The plant smells and tastes of parsley. Native to western and central North America. Photo Gloss Mountain, OK, USA.
Lomatium multifidum—Fern-leaved Desert Parsley
Herbaceous perennial 30 – 140 cm; hairless, puberulent, or scabrous with a scarious sheath at the base. Leaves are 3X compound pinnate, 15 – 35 cm wide on a 3 – 30 cm petiole. Yellowish flowers in compound umbels with bractlets. Fruit is a hairless schizocarp with thick wings. Native to western North America from BC, Canada, south to Baja California, Mexico.
Oenanthe sarmentosa—Water Parsley
Perennial herb growing to 1.5 m tall with pinnately divided leaves to 30 cm long on petioles up to 35 cm long; leaves divided into serrated, lobed leaflets. Flowers in compound umbels with white to red-tinged petals. Native to western North America from Alaska south to California.
Osmorhiza berteroi—Mountain Sweet Cicely
Fragrant herbaceous perennial with a branching stem to 1m tall. Trifolate leaves up to 20 cm long with toothed or lobed margins and a long petiole. Small whitish flowers in terminal compound umbels with 4 – 10 flowers in each umbellet; central flowers often have only anthers. Fruit is an elongated ribbed and bristly schizocarp to 2.5 cm long. Native to temperate North and South America.
Osmorhiza longistylus—Aniseroot
Herbaceous perennial that grows to about 80 cm tall with umbels of small white flowers. When crushed, it smells of anise. Native to North and South America.
Pastinaca sativa – Wild Parsnip
Herbaceous biennial/perennial to 1.2 m tall; smells like parsnip. Leaves are alternate and compound pinnate. Leaflets are yellow-green, rhombic, and coarsely serrated. Numerous yellow flowers in compound umbels. Fruit is a schizocarp with two flattened, slightly winged mericarps. May cause photosensitivity. Native to Eurasia, widely introduced and invasive.
Scandix pecten-veneris – Shepherd’s Needlep
Small herbaceous annual, up to 50 cm tall with finely divided fern-like leaves and small white flowers in few-rayed umbels. Known for its distinctive long-beaked seeds. Native to Eurasia.
Sium suave—Water Parsnip
Herbaceous perennial to 3 m tall with light green, hairless stems up to 5 cm thick with few branches. Leaves in basal rosettes or in clusters in aquatic habitats; those on the stem are alternate and odd-pinnate. Flowers in small compound umbels with 10 – 20 small white flowers. Fruit is an indehiscent schizocarp. Native to Eurasia and North America.
Torilisarvensis – Spreading Hedge Parsley
Herbaceous annual with slender, branching, rough-hairy stems to 1 m tall. Leaves are alternate and compound pinnate with deeply divided or coarsely toothed lanceolate leaflets up to 6 cm long each. Open compound umbels have few flowers per umbellet that have 5 unequal-sized petals in white with pink or red tinges. Fruits are greenish to pinkish, 3 – 5 mm long, and coated with straight or curved prickles. Native to Europe, introduced in North America.
Vesper bulbosus – Bulbous Spring-Parsley
Herbaceous spring annual from a large swollen taproot with pale grey-green 2x pinnately compound leaves and purple to pink or whitish flowers in compact umbels; fruits with conspicuous tan to purplish wings. Endemic to the western United States.
Saniculoideae Subfamily
Eryngium yuccifolium—Rattlesnake Master
Herbaceous perennial to 1.8 m tall with 15 – 100 cm long, stiff, 1 – 3 cm wide, sharp-tipped, glaucous blue-green leaves with spiny margins. Flowers in dense, round, terminal flowerhead-like umbels made of 10 – 40 tiny condensed flowers with a faint honey scent and a spiny green bract beneath them, with another cluster of spiny bracts beneath the round umbel. Native to the tallgrass prairies of the central and eastern USA.
Sanicula canadensis—Canadian Blacksnakeroot
Herbaceous biennial or perennial 0.3 – 1.4 m tall with usually trifoliate leaves with ovate, obovate, or broadly elliptic leaflets. Small pale green flowers in tiny bur-like compound umbels have sepals longer than their petals, followed by bur-like schizocarps with two mericarps. Native to eastern North America, west to Wyoming, USA.
Scientific Botanical Description of the Apiaceae
Below is for citizen scientists, researchers, or anyone who wants to dive deeper into the world of botany to learn more about the Apiaceae family. Note that most botanical terms have a hover-over definition to help you better understand what they mean.
Flowers of the Apiaceae
Apiaceae plants are usually hermaphroditic but may also be andromonoecious, polygamomonoecious, or dioecious (Acronema). Pollination is entomophilous. Numerous small flowers are almost always in a characteristic flat-topped terminal cymose umbel(s). Otherwise, inflorescences are sometimes in cymose heads or rarely reduced to a single flower. Inflorescences may be pseudanthial and often associated with sterile flowers at the periphery and may or may not have involucral bracts. Flowers are usually actinomorphic but may be zygomorphic at the umbel edge. The petals are unequal in size, with those pointing outwards from the umbel larger than those pointing in. Flowers are usually fairly small, possess bracts, and may be regular to slightly irregular in the corolla. Flowers are usually perfectly 5-merous (except for the gynoecium) and are tetracyclic. Free hypanthium is not present. The perianth usually has a distinct calyx and corolla (but the calyx is often very reduced). The perianth may be sepaline (corolla rarely absent) or petaline (calyx teeth sometimes absent) with 4–10 parts in two (or one) isomerous whorls. The calyx, when detectable, has five parts in one whorl that may be free or connate (often reduced to a rim but never forming a tube). Sepals are persistent and may be lobulate, blunt-lobed, or toothed. The corolla also has five parts in one whorl. The white, yellow, pink, or purple petals are always free, valvate, and may be unequal or regular.
Androecium of the Apiaceae
The androecium has five members (all stamens) that are free of the perianth and each other. They are all equal to unequal and are found in 1 whorl. Their five stamens are all fertile, isomerous with the perianth, oppositisepalous, and inflexed in bud. Anthers are dorsifixed or basifixed, introrse, tetrasporangiate, and dehisce via longitudinal slits.
Gynoecium of the Apiaceae
The gynoecium is 2-carpeled, and the pistil is one- or two-celled. The gynoecium is synovarious, median, and inferior. The ovary is 2(1) locular. An epigynous disk is present. Two apical styles are free to partly joined, with their bases thickened into one or two stylopodia that crown the ovary. Stigmas are wet type, non-papillate, and Group IV type. Placentation is either axile or apical. There are 1 or 2 ovules per locule (usually 2 with 1 abortive) that are pendulous and either epitropous or anatropous. Ovules have a ventral raphe, are non-arillate, are unitegmic, and are tenuinucellate or pseudocrassinucellate.
Fruit of the Apiaceae
The fruits of the Apiaceae are non-fleshy dry schizocarps with 2 mericarps that are united facially. The mericarps are 1-seeded in each part, with the integument sometimes united with the pericarp. Seeds are oily and endospermic.
Habit & Leaf Form of the Apiaceae
Plants of the Apiaceae are usually soft-stemmed aromatic annual, biennial, or perennial herbs, but some have tough stems, and a few are even woody, tree-like, or shrubby species in the tropics. Stems are hollow between leaf joints and are often ribbed (e.g., Angelica, celery). Sometimes they are switch-plants, occasionally with the principal photosynthesizing function transferred to stems (e.g., Platysace compressa) or phyllodineous (petiole or rachis performs leaf function) (e.g., Lilaeopsis). Leaves are usually well-developed but can be reduced in switch forms. Plants are usually non-succulent but occasionally can be succulent (e.g., Crithmum) and may or may not have a basal aggregation of leaves. They can be helophytic, mesophytic, or xerophytic (e.g., Eryngium). Plants may be conspicuously heterophyllous (e.g., Apium inundatum) or not. Leaves are small to large and arranged alternately or alternately and opposite (usually just opposite on upper leaves). Leaves are usually herbaceous but may occasionally be leathery or rarely fleshy. Attachment to the stem is either petiolate or sometimes perfoliate or peltate, more or less sheathing; sheaths have free margins and may or may not be pulvinate. Leaves may be gland-dotted and are usually malodorous to pleasant-smelling and are rarely odorless. Leaf arrangement may be simple or compound ternate, imparipinnate, bipinnate, multiply compound, or rarely palmate. Lamina, when simple, is usually dissected pinnatifid but may be palmatifid (in Sanicula, Astrantia, and Eryngium) or spinose (Eryngium) or sometimes may be entire. They are pinnately, palmately, or parallel-veined. Leaves are usually exstipulate (but sometimes with stipular flanges) or sometimes stipulate (Hydrocotyloideae).
Taxonomy of Apiaceae
There are 3,820 species in 446 genera in the Apiaceae family of the Apiales order of the core eudicots. Then, the Apiaceae family is further divided into four main subfamilies, with a couple of unplaced genera as well.
Apioideae – The largest subfamily and a diverse group of annual to perennial herbs or subshrubs or rarely a small tree. Leaves are usually palmately divided but may be pinnate or simple and entire. Venation is pinnate, but some have parallel venation. Fruits are variable and may or may not be flattened, winged, or ribbed. Cosmopolitan distribution.
Azorelloideae – Annual herbs or small shrubs, often hummock-forming. Leaves are simple, trifid to palmately lobed, stipulate. Fruit with wings or ribs where the wings or ribs are the largest. Mostly South American, particularly the Patagonia region.
Mackinlayoideae – Annual herbs to shrubs. Leaves may or may not be pedately compound, palmate to simple, and are stipulate. Fruit is drupaceous and often laterally compressed. Mostly Old World Tropics.
Saniculoideae – A diverse group of annual herbs and subshrubs to trees. Leaves may be tripinnately or palmately compound or simple and often palmately lobed, and some have hairy or spiny teeth. Inflorescences are usually simple umbels or capitulum, and bracts may be foliaceous or petaloid. Fruits may be barely to strongly compressed dorsally or laterally, may have 2-3 wings, or may be scaly or spiny. Cosmopolitan distribution.
Apiaceae are both similar to and closely related to the Araliaceae Family, and often, the two can be hard to differentiate. However, some more common differences include the fact that the Apiaceae are usually herbs vs usually shrubs and trees in the Araliaceae, the leaves that usually lack stipules in Apiaceae vs usually present in Araliaceae, and the fruit is a dry schizocarp with two mericarps vs a berry-like drupe in the Araliaceae.
Distribution of Apiaceae
The Apiaceae family is a cosmopolitan family found all over the globe from frigid to tropical zones. Still, most members of the Apiaceae are in the north temperate zone.
Distribution of Apiaceae in the Americas
Canadian Apiaceae Genera Include:
Apioideae: Aegopodium 1 of 11 Eurasian spp intro all S Canada exc AB, Labrador; Aethusa monospecific European sp intro ON, QC, NB, NS; Anethum 1 of 2 Mediterranean spp intro all S provinces exc NS, NB, PE, NL;Angelica 9 of 104 N temperate spp native all of Canada (& GL) exc SK, MB; Anthriscus 3 of 13 mostly Eurasian spp intro BC, ON, QC, NB, NS NL (exc Labrador); Apium 1 of 12 temperate & subtropical Old World & SAM spp native extirpated NS; Astrantia 1 of 11 S European spp intro NL (exc Labrador); Berula 1 of 6 subcosmopolitan spp native BC, ON; Bunium 1 of 32 Mediterranean & Indian spp intro NL?; Bupleurum 2 of 213 sub cosmopolitan spp native YT, AB, NT, BC intro QC, ON; Carum 1 of 22 Eurasian spp intro all Canada exc YT, Labrador;Chaerophyllum 3 of 69 mostly N temperate spp intro BC, native ON, QC?; Cicuta 4 of 4 N temperate spp native all of Canada inc Arctic; Cnidium 1 of 8 mostly E Asian spp native BC, YT, NT; Conioselinum 2 of 16 N temperate spp native BC, ON, NL, NB, NS, PE; Conium 1 of 6 mostly Eurasin spp intro BC, AB, SK, ON, QC, NB, NS; Conopodium 1 of 8 Eurasian spp intro NL (exc Labrador); Coriandrum 1 of 2 Middle East spp intro ON, QC, NS; Cryptotaenia 1 of 6 mostly African spp a former NAM endemic native in MB, ON, QC, extirpated NB, now intro Austria; Cymopterus 1 of 44 NAM endemic spp native BC?, AB, SK, MB; Daucus 1 of 43 cosmopolitan spp native BC intro rest of S provinces; Erigenia monospecific E NAM endemic sp native ON; Foeniculum 1 of 3 Mediterranean spp intro BC, ON, QC, cultivated fennel;Glehnia monospecific E Asia & NW NAM sp native BC;Heracleum 4 of 83 mostly Eurasian spp inc 1 sp native all Canada exc NU and 3 spp intro BC, YT, ON, QC, NB, NS, PE, NL (exc Labrador); Levisticum monospecific Middle Eastern sp intro AB, ON, QC, NS; Ligusticum 6 of 40 N temperate spp native BC, ON, QC, NL, NS, NB, PE, NU (& GL); Lilaeopsis 2 of 13 Americas & Australasia spp native BC, NS; Lomatium 20 of 101 W+C NAM endemic spp native BC, AB, SK, MB; Musineon 1 of 6 spp C NAM endemic spp native AB, SK, MB;Myrrhis monospecific S Europe sp intro BC, ON, NS, NL (exc Labrador); Oenanthe 1 of 33 mostly N temperate spp native BC; Osmorhiza 6 of 12 mostly Americas spp native all of Canada, 1 sp native temperate Asia; Oxypolis 2 of 4 NAM endemic spp native BC, ON; Pastinaca 1 of 15 Eurasian spp intro all of Canada exc NU, Labrador; Perideridia 1 of 13 NAM endemic spp native BC, AB, SK;Petroselinum monospecific Mediterranean sp (parsley) intro BC, ON; Peucedanum (inc Imperatoria)1 of 71 Eurasian spp intro ON, NS; Pimpinella 2 of 152 Old World spp intro AB, ON, QC, NB, NS, NL (exc Labrador);Podistera 2 of 4 temperate NE Asia & NW NAM spp native YT, NT; Scandix 1 of 12 Mediterranean & C Asia spp intro BC?, SK?, ON?; Sium 1 of 10 N temperate spp native all Canada inc Arctic, exc Labrador; Taenidia 1 of 2 E NAM endemic spp native ON, QC; Thaspium 3 of 4 E NAM endemic spp native ON, NS; Torilis 3 of 14 Old World spp intro BC, ON, QC; Yabea monospecific W NAM endemic sp native BC; Zizia 2 of 3 N NAM endemic spp native all S Canada ex PE, NL, inc YT. Saniculoideae: Eryngium 4 of 247 subcosmopolitan spp intro BC, AB, SK, ON, QC; Sanicula 9 of 47 cosmopolitan spp native all of S Canada exc Labrador.
USA ApiaceaeGenera Include:
Apioideae: Aegopodium 1 of 11 Eurasian spp intro WA, OR, ID, MT, MN, WI, IL, MO, KY, TN, GA, SC, NC, VA, WV, MD, DE, IN, OH, MI, PA, NJ, NY, CT, RI, MA, VT, NH, ME; Aethusa monospecific European sp intro ID, AR, MN, WI, IL, IN, OH, KY, MI, WV, PA, DE, NJ, NY, CT, RI, MA, ME; Ammi 2 of 3 Mediterranean & Azores spp intro OR, CA, AZ, TX, LA, MS, AL, GA, FL, SC, NC, MO, SD, PA; Ammoselinum 3 of 4 Americas endemic spp native CA, AZ, NM, TX, LA, OK, KS, AR, MO, MS, TN, NC, intro AL, inc 1 S USA endemic sp; Anethum 1 of 2 Mediterranean spp intro in most USA exc ID, NV, UT, WY, NM, TN, MS, AL, GA, SC, FL, VT, NH and inc HI; Angelica 22 of 104 N temperate spp native all USA inc AK but exc ND, SD, NE, KS, TX; Anthriscus 3 of 13 mostly Eurasian spp intro WA, OR, CA, ID, MT, WY, AZ, NE, OK, MN, MO, AR, LA, GA, SC, NC, TN, VA, WV, MD, DE, WI, IL, IN, OH, MI, PA, NJ, NY, CT, RI, MA, VT, ME; Apiastrum monospecific SW NAM endemic sp native CA, AZ; Apium 4 of 12 temperate & subtropical Old World & SAM spp intro in WA, OR, CA, ID, UT, AZ, TX, OK, SD, MO, LA, IL, TN, MS, FL, SC, NC, OH, WV, PA, NJ, NY, CT, MA; Berula 1 of 6 subcosmopolitan spp native all W USA from MN S to LA and all states W exc LA and inc MI, NY; Bifora 3 of 3 American & Mediterranean spp inc 1 sp endemic S USA in TX, OK, AR and 2 spp intro AL, PA, MD, NJ, RI; Bupleurum 4 of 213 sub cosmopolitan spp native AK, native and intro most of USA exc WA, NV, UT, ND, NE, OK, MN, IA, WI, RI, ME, MS, SC; Carum 1 of 22 Eurasian spp intro all N half of USA from OR E to NJ and all N exc NE and inc UT, CO, NM, LA, MO, TN, KY, WV, VA, MD, NC;Caucalis monospecific Mediterranean sp intro PA and HI; Chaerophyllum 4 of 69 mostly N temperate spp intro and native most E USA ND S to TX and all E exc ND, SD, MN, CT, MA, VT, NH, ME and inc AZ, NM; Cicuta 4 of 4 N temperate spp native all USA inc AK; Cnidium 2 of 8 mostly E Asian spp ink 1 sp native AK and 1 sp intro OR; Conioselinum 4 of 16 N temperate spp native most of USA inc AK exc ID, NV, ND, SD, KS, OK, TX, AR, MS, AL, SC, FL, TN, KY, WV, MD, DE; Conium 1 of 6 mostly Eurasian spp intro all USA exc MS, FL; Coriandrum 1 of 2 Middle East spp intro WA, OR, CA, NV, MT, ND, SD, AZ, NM, TX, OK, LA, FL, MO, IL, TN, SC, NC, VA, DE, MD, MI, OH, PA, NJ, NY, CT, RI, MA and HI; Cryptotaenia 1 of 6 mostly African spp a former NAM endemic native all E USA from ND S to TX and every state E, now intro Austria; Cuminum 1 of 4 Middle East & C-W Asia spp intro TX, MA; Cyclospermum 1 of 3 former Mexico & Neo endemic sp intro all S USA NM E to NC and inc CA, NV, OR, IL, VA, WV, MD, PA, NY and HI; Cymopterus (inc Aletes, Oreoxis, Pseudocymopterus, Pteryxia) 43 of 44 spp native to all W half of USA from ND S to TX but exc WA, inc MN; Cynosciadium monospecific S USA endemic of TX, OK, LA, AR, MO, IL, TN, MS, AL; Daucosma monospecific narrow endemic of NM, TX; Daucus 1 of 43 cosmopolitan spp native and intro all USA; Erigenia monospecific E NAM endemic sp native most of E USA WI S to MS and all E exc FL, SC, DE, NJ, CT, RI, MA, VT, NH, ME and inc KS, OK, MO, AR; Eurytaenia 2 of 2 S USA endemic spp of NM, TX, OK, inc 1 narrow endemic of TX; Falcaria monospecific Eurasian sp intro WY, SD, NE, OK, LA, IA, MO, WI, IL, WV, VA, MD, PA, NY, CT; Foeniculum 1 of 3 Mediterranean spp intro most of USA exc ID, MT, WY, CO, ND, SD, OK, MN, AL, VT, NH and inc HI, cultivated fennel; Glehnia monospecific E Asia & NW NAM sp native WA, OR, CA; Harbouria monospecific C USA endemic of WY, CO, NM; Harperella monospecific SE USA endemic of AL, AK, MS, GA, SC, NC, VA, MD, OK; Helosciadium 1 of 4 Eurasian & African spp intro CA, PA, NJ; Heracleum 3 of 83 mostly Eurasian spp inc 1 sp native and 2 spp intro most USA exc TX, OK, AR, LA, MS, AL, FL, SC, and native AK; Levisticum monospecific Middle Eastern sp intro intro CO, NM, MO, MN, MI, OH, PA, NJ, NY, CT, MA, VT, ME; Ligusticum 11 of 40 N temperate spp native all W and E states inc AK but exc ND S to TX and also exc MN, IA, LA, FL, WI, IL, MI, VT; Lilaeopsis 6 Americas & Australasia spp native WA, OR, CA, AZ, TX, LA, AR, MS, AL, FL, GA, SC, VA, NC, MD, NY, NJ, MA, NH, ME and AK; Limnosciadium monospecific S+E USA endemic of TX, OK, KS, LA, AR, MS, MO, IA; Lomatium (inc Orogenia) 89 of 101 W+C NAM endemic spp native all W USA MN S to LA and all W exc AR, LA, most are narrow endemics of the USA; Musineon 6 of 6 C NAM endemic spp native ID, MT, WY, CO, NV, UT, NM, ND, SD, NE, inc 4 endemic to the USA which inc 3 narrow endemics of MT (1), ID + UT (2); Myrrhis monospecific S Europe sp intro OR, MI, PA; Neoparrya monospecific narrow S-C USA endemic of NM, CO; Oenanthe 4 of 33 mostly N temperate spp native WA, OR, CA and AK and intro MO, OH, MD; Oreonana 3 of 3 narrow endemic spp of CA;Osmorhiza 8 of 12 mostly Americas spp native all USA inc AK but exc FL, LA, inc 1 endemic to USA, 1 sp in genus native temperate Asia; Oxypolis 4 of 4 NAM endemic spp native all USA exc WA, ID, WY, NV, ND, SD, NE, KS, inc 2 spp endemic to S USA; Pastinaca 1 of 15 Eurasian spp intro in all USA exc MS, AL, GA, FL; Perideridia 13 of 13 NAM endemic spp native most of USA exc all E and NE Atlantic states as well as WV, TX, LA, NE, ND, MN, IA, WI, inc 12 spp endemic to USA; Petroselinum monospecific Mediterranean sp (parsley) intro WA, CA, NV, UT, ID, MT, KS, TX, LA, AR, MS, FL, GA, SC, NC, IA, MI, OH, PA, MD, NJ, NY, CT, RI, MA and HI; Peucedanum 3 of 71 mostly Eurasian spp intro TN, PA, NY, WV, MA, native HI; Pimpinella 3 of 152 Old World spp intro WA, MT, MN, WI, TN, IN, MI, OH, VA, WV, MD, DE, PA, NJ, NY, CT, MA, VT, ME; Podistera 4 of 4 NE Asia & NW NAM spp native CA, UT, CO, NM and AK; Polytaenia 3 of 3 E USA endemic spp of ND, NE, KS, OK, TX, MN, IA, MO, AR, LA, MS, AL, TN, KY, WI, IL, IN, MI; Ptilimnium 5 of 5 USA & Caribbean endemic spp native in most of SE USA from KS S to TX and E to NJ exc IN, OH and inc SD, NY, CT, RI, MA, inc 4 spp endemic to USA; Rhysopterus monospecific W USA endemic OR, ID, NV; Scandix 1 of 12 Mediterranean & C Asia spp intro WA, OR, CA, AZ, TX, SD, AL, GA, FL, SC, NC, TN, OH, MI, PA, MD, NJ, NY, RI, MA; Selinum 1 of 11 mostly European spp intro MA, NY?; Seseli 1 of 144 mostly Eurasian spp intro MD; Shoshonea monospecific narrow endemic of WY, MT; Sium 2 of 10 N temperate spp native all USA inc AK but exc OK; Smyrnium 1 of 5 Mediterranean spp intro AL;Spermolepis 9 of 11 Americas endemic spp native in most of S+E USA from ND S to TX and all E exc WI, MI, OH, WV, PA, CT, RI, MA, VT, NH, ME and inc NM, AZ, CA and HI, inc 6 endemic to USA, 5 of which are narrow endemics of SW CA (1), TX (1), AZ + CA(extirpated) (1), NM (1), HI (1); Taenidia 2 of 2 E NAM endemic spp native in all E half of USA from ND S to TX and all E exc ME, NH, CT, FL, ND, NE, inc 1 narrow endemic of NE USA; Tauschia 10 of 34 Americas endemic spp native WA, ID, OR, CA, TX; Thaspium 4 of 4 spp endemic E NAM native all E USA from ND S to TX and all E exc ND, SD, NE, CT, MA, VT, NH, ME, inc 1 sp endemic to E USA; Tiedemannia 2 of 2 S USA & Caribbean endemic spp native TX, LA, MS, AL, GA, FL, SC, NC, MD, extirpated DE, inc 1 sp endemic S USA;Tilingia 1 of 2 NE Asia & AK spp native AK; Tordylium 1 of 20 Mediterranean spp intro AZ; Torilis 5 of 14 Old World spp intro most of USA exc MT S to NM, also exc NV, ND, SD, MN, DE, CT, RI, VT, NH, ME and inc HI; Trachyspermum 1 of 20 Middle East & S Asia spp intro MI; Trepocarpus monospecific SE USA endemic TX, OK, LA, AR, MO, KY, TN, MS, AL, GA, FL, SC; Turgenia 1 of 2 Mediterranean + C Asia spp intro WA, OR, PA; Vesper 6 of 6 SW NAM endemic spp native CA, NV, ID, UT, AZ, WY, CO, NM, SD, NE, KS, OK, TX, inc 5 spp endemic to SW USA; Visnaga 1 of 2 Mediterranean spp intro CA, OR?, AL, TX?, FL?, NC?, PA?; Yabea monospecific W NAM endemic sp native WA, ID, OR, CA, NV, UT, AZ, NM; Zizia 3 of 3 N NAM endemic spp native in all USA exc CA, AZ, NM, inc 1 sp endemic to SE USA. Azorelloideae: Bowlesia 1 of 16 former Americas endemic spp native OR, CA, NV, AZ, NM, TX, OK, LA, MS, AL, FL, now intro France, Pakistan. Mackinlayoideae: Centella 2 of 50 mostly S Africa & pantropical spp intro and native WA, TX, LA, AR, MS, AL, GA, FL, SC, NC, VA, MD, DE, OH, NJ and intro HI. Saniculoideae: Eryngium 34 of 247 subcosmopolitan spp native and intro all USA exc UT, WY, MT, ND;Sanicula 22 of 47 cosmopolitan spp native in all USA exc AZ, UT and inc HI.
Mexico ApiaceaeGenera Include:
Apioideae: Ammi 1 of 3 Mediterranean & Azores spp intro SW Mexico; Ammoselinum 2 of 3 Americas endemic spp native BCN, BCS, Son, Sin, Chi, Dgo, Zac, Coa, NL, Tam, SLP, Gto, Qro, Ags, Hgo;Angelica ?? of 104 N temperate spp native most of Mexico exc BCN, BCS, Son, Sin, Chp, Tab, Cam, Yuc, QR; Apiastrum monospecific SW NAM sp native BC, BCS, Son, Sin?; Apium 1 of 12 temperate & subtropical Old World & SAM spp intro NW Mexico; Arracacia ?? of 42 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native through all of Mexico; Berula 1 of 6 sub cosmopolitan spp native Nay, Jal, Col, Mch, Gro, Oax, Chp, Pue, Cam, Yuc, QR; Chaerophyllum ?? of 69 mostly N temperate spp native N+SW+C Mexico, Ver; Cicuta 2 of 4 N temperate spp native Chi, Coa, NL, Tam, Dgo, Zac, Gto, Qro, Ags, SLP, Hgo;Coaxana 2 of 2 Mexico + CAM endemic spp native Nay, Jal, Col, Mch, Gro, Oax, Chp, Cam, Tab, Yuc, QR, inc 1 narrow endemic of Gro + Oax; Conioselinum 1 of 16 N temperate spp native BC, BCS, Son, Sin, Chi, Coa, NL, Tam, Dgo, Zac, Ags, Gto, Qro, Hgo, SLP, Nay, Jal, Col, Mch, Gro, Oax; Coriandrum 1 of 2 Middle East spp intro NW+C Mexico; Coulterophytum 4 of 4 Mexico endemic spp, all narrow endemics of Mch (1), Jal (2), Dgo + Sin + Nay (1); Cuminum 1 of 4 Middle East & C-W Asia spp intro Chi, Coa, NL, Tam, Dgo, Zac; Cyclospermum 1 of 3 former Mexico & Neo endemic spp native most of Mexico exc BC, BCS, Son, Sin where it is intro, also intro pantropical; Cymopterus ?? of 44 NAM endemic spp native much of Mexico exc Mex, Cd Mex, Mor, Tlx, Pue, Ver, Tab, Cam, Yuc, QR; Dahliaphyllum monospecific endemic of Nay, Jal, Col, Mch, Gro, Oax;Daucus ?? of 43 cosmopolitan spp native all of Mexico inc Mexican Pacific Is; Donnellsmithia 19 of 19 Mexico + N Neo endemic spp native through all of Mexico, inc 17 spp endemic to Mexico, 11 of which are narrow endemics of Coa (1), Chi (1), Dgo + Nay (1), Zac + Jal (1), Mex + Mch (1), Oax + Chp (1), Chp (1), SW Mexico (1), SW+C Mexico (3); Enantiophylla monospecific Mexico & CAM endemic sp native much of Mexico exc Ver, Tab, Cam, Yuc, QR; Ligusticum ?? of 40 N temperate spp native BC, BCS, Son, Sin, Chi, Coa, NL, Tam, Dgo, Zac, Ags, SLP, Hgo, Gto, Qro; Lilaeopsis 1 of 13 Americas & Australasia spp native much of Mexico exc Chp, Tab, Cam, Yuc, QR; Lomatium ?? of 101 W+C NAM endemic spp native BC, BCS, Son, Sin; Mathiasella monospecific endemic NE Mexico Chi, Coa, NL, Tam, Dgo, SLP, Zac, Gto, Ags, Qro, Hgo; Musineon 1 of 6 C NAM endemic spp native Son, Chi, Coa; Myrrhidendron 1 of 5 Neo endemic spp ative Chp, Tab, Cam, Yuc, QR; Neogoezia 5 of 5 Mexican endemic spp of N+SW+C Mexico, Ver; Neonelsonia monospecific Neo endemic native Nay, Jal, Col, Mch, Gro, Oax, Chp, Tab, Cam, Yuc, QR;Oenanthe ?? of 33 mostly N temperate spp native Nay, Jal, Col, Mch, Gro; Osmorhiza 3 of 12 mostly Americas spp native most of Mexico exc SE Mexico, inc 1 narrow endemic of NL; Ottoa monospecific N Neo endemic sp native Nay, Jal, Col, Mch, Gro, Chp, Ver, Tab, Cam, Yuc, QR; Petroselinum monospecific Mediterranean sp intro Mex, Cd Mex, Mor, Pue; Prionosciadium 21 of 21 Mexico & Gautemala endemic spp native all of Mexico, inc 20 spp endemic to Mexico, which inc 8 narrow endemics of Mex + Mch (1), Coa + NL (1), Jal + Nay (1), Zac + Jal (1), SLP (1), Chi (1), Tam (1), Col (1); Rhodosciadium 15 of 15 Mexico & Guatemala endemic spp native all of Mexico, inc 14 spp endemic to Mexico, 4 of which are narrow endemics of SLP (1), Oax (1), Jal (1), Chp (1); Spananthe 1 of 2 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native in all of Mexico; Spermolepis 4 of 11 Americas endemic spp native BC, BCS, Son, Sin, Chi, Coa, NL, Tam, Dgo, Zac, Ags, Hgo, SLP, Ver; Tauschia ?? of 34 Americas endemic spp native all of Mexico; Torilis ?? of 14 Old World spp intro NE Mexico Coa, Chi, NL, Tam, Dgo, Zac, Gto, SLP, Qro; Vesper 1 of 6 SW NAM endemic spp native BCN, Son; Villarrealia monospecific narrow Mexico endemic Coa, NL; Visnaga 1 of 2 Mediterranean spp intro SW Mexico; Yabea monospecific W NAM endemic sp native NW Mexico. Azorelloideae: Bowlesia 2 of 16 former Americas endemic spp native N+C+SW Mexico. Mackinlayoideae: Centella ?? of 50 mostly S Africa & pantropical spp native Chi, Coa, Dgo, NL, Tam, Zac, Gto, Qro, Ags, SLP, Hgo; Micropleura 1 of 2 Mexico & N Neo endemic spp native all of Mexico. Saniculoideae: Eryngium ?? of 247 subcosmopolitan spp native all of Mexico;Sanicula ?? of 47 cosmopolitan spp native all of Mexico.
Neotropical ApiaceaeGenera Include:
Apioideae: Ammi 2 of 3 Mediterranean & Azores spp intro Bermuda, Bahama, Cuba, Hispaniola, Guatemala, El Salvador, Colombia, Argentina, S Brazil, Uruguay; Ammoselinum 1 of 4 Americas endemic spp a narrow endemic of NE Argentina + Uruguay; Anethum 1 of 2 Mediterranean spp intro Guatemala, Bahamas, Greater Antilles, Leeward & Windward Is, Ecuador, Peru, NE Argentina, S+SE Brazil; Anthriscus ?? of 13 mostly Eurasian spp intro C Chile, NW Argentina; Apium 9 of 12 temperate & subtropical Old World & SAM spp inc 8 spp native Bolivia, Chile, Juan Fernandez Is, Desventurados Is, Argentina, Paraguay, S+SE Brazil, Uruguay and 1 sp introintro Guatemala, Bermuda, Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Trinidad-Tobago, Ecuador, Peru, inc 4 narrow endemic of N+C Chile + Juan Fernandez Is (1), Juan Fernandez Is (1), C Chile (1), Uruguay (1); Arracacia 42 of 42 Mexico & Neo endemic spp of Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama, Andes of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, intro Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Trinidad-Tobago; Asciadium monospecific endemic Cuba; Austropeucedanum monospecific endemic NW Argentina; Berula 1 of 6 subcosmopolitan spp native Guatemala; Bupleurum 1 of 213 subcosmopolitan spp intro NE Argentina; Caucalis monospecific Mediterranean sp intro NE Argentina; Chaerophyllum ?? of 69 mostly N temperate spp native Guatemala, Costa Rica, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina; Coaxana 1 of 2 Mexico & CAM endemic spp native Guatemala, Honduras; Conium 1 of 6 mostly Eurasian spp intro Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Cayman Is, Hispaniola, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, S+SE Brazil, Argentina, C+S Chile; Coriandrum 1 of 2 Middle East spp widely cultivated and naturalized Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto RIco, Trinidad-Tobago, Juan Fernandez Is, Ecuador, Peru, Paraguay, S Brazil, Argentina;Cotopaxia 2 of 2 N SAM endemic spp of the high Andes of Ecuador, Colombia; Cyclospermum 3 of 3 former Mexico & Neo endemic spp native CAM (exc Belize), Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Galapagos, Peru, Bolivia, C+E+S Brazil, Paraguay, Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, intro Bermuda, Greater Antilles (exc Cayman Is), Leeward & Windward Is, Juan Fernandez Is, USA & pantropical, inc 1 narrow endemic of Uruguay; Daucus 3 of 43 cosmopolitan spp native Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, S+SE Brazil, Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, and intro Greater Antilles (exc Cayman Is), Leeward Is, Trinidad-Tobago, Juan Fernandez Is, Desventurados Is; Donnellsmithia 2 of 19 Mexico & N Neo endemic spp native Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, most of genus is endemic to Mexico; Enantiophylla monospecific Mexico & CAM endemic sp native Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras; Foeniculum 1 of 3 Mediterranean spp intro cultivated and naturalized, Bermuda, Bahamas, Greater Antilles (exc Cayman Is), Leeward & Windward Is, Guatemala, El Salvador, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Chile, Paraguay, Argentina, S+SE Brazil, Uruguay; Helosciadium 1 of 4 Eurasian & African spp intro N+C Chile, NE Argentina; Heracleum 1 of 83 mostly Eurasian spp intro Haiti, S Argentina; Homalocarpus 6 of 6 narrow endemic spp of N+C Chile; Klotzschia 3 of 3 spp endemic C+E Brazil; Lilaeopsis 6 of 13 Americas & Australasia spp native Cuba, Dominican REpublic, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, S+SE Brazil, Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, inc 1 narrow endemic of S Brazil; Myrrhidendron 5 of 5 Neo endemic spp native Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama, N Andes of Colombia & Ecuador, inc 4 narrow endemics of Colombia (1), Colombia + Ecuador (1), Costa RIca + Panama (1), Panama (1); Neonelsonia monospecific Neo endemic native S Mexico, Guatemala, Andes of SAM in Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru; Niphogeton 18 of 18 Neo endemic spp Costa Rica, Panama, N Andes of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia; Notiosciadium monospecific narrow E SAM endemic NE Argentina, Uruguay; Oenanthe ?? of 33 mostly N temperate spp intro Uruguay, NE Argentina; Oligocladus monospecific Argentina endemic NW +S Argentina; Osmorhiza 4 of 12 mostly Americas spp native Guatemala, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, C+S Chile, 1 sp in genus endemic to temperate Asia; Ottoa monospecific N Neo endemic sp native Guatemala, Costa Rica, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador; Paraselinum monospecific endemic of Peru, Bolivia; Pastinaca 1 of 15 Eurasian spp, P. sativa (parsnip), intro Greater Antilles, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, C+S Chile, Uruguay; Pedinopetalum monospecific endemic Dominican Republic; Perissocoeleum 4 of 4 spp endemic Colombia & Venezuela; Petroselinum monospecific Mediterranean sp intro Guatemala, El Salvador, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Ecuador, Peru, S Brazil, NE+S Argentina; Pimpinella ?? of 152 Old World spp intro Guatemala, Venezuela, N Argentina, S Brazil; Prionosciadium 1 of 21 Mexico & Guatemala endemic spp native Guatemala; Ptilimnium 1 of 5 USA & Caribbean endemic spp native Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico; Rhodosciadium 1 of 15 Mexico & Guatemala endemic spp native Guatemala;Ridolfia monospecific Mediterranean sp intro Peru; Scandix 1 of 12 Mediterranean & C Asia spp intro C Chile, NE Argentina; Seseli 1 of 144 mostly Eurasian spp intro C Chile; Sium 1 of 10 N temperate spp intro N+C Chile; Spananthe 2 of 2 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native CAM (exc Costa Rica), Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, C +E Brazil, Haiti, Trinidad-Tobago, inc 1 narrow endemic of Peru;Spermolepis 1 of 11 Americas endemic spp endemic throughout Argentina; Tauschia 34 of 34 Americas endemic spp native from W USA, Mexico, Guatemala, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador; Tiedemannia 2 of 2 S USA & Caribbean endemic spp native Bahamas, Cuba; Tordylium 1 of 20 Mediterranean spp intro NE Argentina; Torilis ?? of 14 Old World spp intro Peru, Bolivia, C Chile, N Argentina, S Brazil, Uruguay; Visnaga 1 of 2 Mediterranean spp intro Colombia, Peru, C Chile, N Argentina, Uruguay, S Brazil. Azorelloideae: Asteriscium 9 of 9 SAM endemic spp of Chile, Argentina, inc 6 narrow endemics of NW Argentina (3), N Chile (1), C Chile (1), N+C Chile (1);Azorella 20-46 of 53 SAM + Australasia spp native Costa Rica, Colombia & Venezuela along W SAM Andes S through Ecuador, Perú Bolivia, Chile, Argentina S to Patagonia; Bowlesia 16 of 16 former Americas endemic spp native French Guiana, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, S+SE Brazil, inc 7 narrow endemics of Argentina (3), Chile (3), Peru (1), 1 sp now intro France, Pakistan; Diposis 3 of 3 S SAM endemic spp each narrow endemics of C Chile (1), S Argentina (1), Uruguay (1); Domeykoa 5 of 5 narrow endemic spp of Peru, N Chile; Eremocharis 9 of 9 narrow W SAM endemic spp of N Chile, Peru; Gymnophyton 6 of 6 spp endemic to the Andes of Chile, Bolivia, NW Argentina, inc 5 narrow endemics of N+C Chile;Pozoa 2 of 2 spp endemic NW+S Argentina, C+S Chile; Mackinlayoideae: Centella ?? of 50 mostly S Africa & pantropical spp native CAM (exc Panama), Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Greater Antilles, Leeward & Windward Is, Trinidad-Tobago, Juan Fernandez Is, Galápagos Colombia, Venezuela, C+S+E Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, C+S Chile, N Argentina, Uruguay;Micropleura 2 of 2 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Costa Rica, Colombia, inc 1 narrow endemic Colombia; Saniculoideae: Eryngium ?? of 247 subcosmopolitan spp native CAM, Greater Antilles (exc Cayman Is), Leeward & Windward Is, Trinidad-Tobago, all of SAM;Sanicula ?? of 47 cosmopolitan spp native CAM (exc Belize), Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, C+S Chile, NW+S Argentina.
Patagonia ApiaceaeGenera Include:
60% of Azorelloideae are in South America where they form an important component of the southern temperate zones: Apioideae: Ammi 1 of 3 Mediterranean & Azores spp intro S Chile, S Argentina; Anthriscus ?? of 13 mostly Eurasian spp intro Patagonia; Apium 2 of 12 temperate & subtropical Old World & SAM spp native throughout Patagonia & Falkland Is; Chaerophyllum ?? of 69 mostly N temperate spp native S Chile, S Argentina, Falkland Is; Conium 1 of 6 mostly Eurasian spp intro throughout Patagonia inc Falkland Is; Coriandrum 1 of 2 Middle East spp intro S Argentina; Cyclospermum 1 of 3 former Mexico & Neo endemic spp native throughout Patagonia; Daucus 1-2 of 43 cosmopolitan spp native throughout Patagonia; Foeniculum 1 of 3 Mediterranean spp intro throughout Patagonia; Helosciadium 1 of 4 Eurasian & African spp intro S Argentina;Heracleum 1 of 83 mostly Eurasian spp intro S Argentina; Homalocarpus 1-2 of 6 narrow endemic spp of N+C Chile found near N limit of Patagonia in SC Chile; Levisticum monospecific Middle Eastern sp intro intro S Chile; Lilaeopsis 1 of 13 Americas & Australasia spp native Patagonia & Falkland Is; Oligocladus monospecific Argentina endemic of NW+S Argentina; Osmorhiza 3 of 12 mostly Americas spp native throughout Patagonia; Pastinaca 1 of 15 Eurasian spp intro all Patagonia; Petroselinum monospecific Mediterranean sp (parsley) intro S Argentina;Spermolepis 1 of 11 Americas endemic spp endemic all of Argentina, inc Patagonia. Azorelloideae: Asteriscium 3-4of 9 SAM endemic spp found throughout Patagonia; Azorella ?? of 53 SAM + Australasia spp native throughout Patagonia & Falkland Is;Bolax 2 of 2 Patagonian endemic spp of S Chile, S Argentina, Falkland Is; Bowlesia 4 of 16 former Americas endemic spp native throughout Patagonia, now intro France, Pakistan; Diposis 3 of 3 S SAM endemic spp each narrow endemics of C Chile (1), S Argentina (1), Uruguay (1); Huanaca 2 of 2 Patagonia endemic spp of S Argentina, SC+S Chile; Pozoa 2 of 2 spp endemic S Argentina, C+S Chile. Mackinlayoideae: Centella 1 of 50 mostly S Africa & pantropical spp native C+S Chile. Saniculoideae: Eryngium ?? of 247 subcosmopolitan spp native throughout Patagonia;Sanicula ?? of 47 cosmopolitan spp native throughout Patagonia.
Additional Information and References
Visit Lyrae’s Dictionary of Botanical Terms to learn the terminology of botanists. Note that if you hover over most of the words in the articles, you can also get their definitions there.
Willis, Lyrae – Unpublished. Plant Families of North America. This is where all of the family descriptions come from. Below should be most of my references for this. Orchids, Poaceae, and Cyperaceae have additional references.
Canadensys: Acadia University, Université de Montréal Biodiversity Centre, University of Toronto Mississauga, University of British Columbia. http://data.canadensys.net/explorer (accessed 2020 – current)
Delta: Watson, L., and Dallwitz, M.J. (1992 onwards). The Families of Flowering Plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval. Version: 2nd May 2020. delta-intkey.com. Accessed spring through fall of 2020.
Flora of North America. (1993+). https://floranorthamerica.org/Main_Page.
Neotropikey: Milliken, W., Klitgård, B. & Baracat, A. eds (2009 onwards). Neotropikey: Interactive key and information resources for flowering plants of the Neotropics. www.kew.org/neotropikey.com (accessed 2020 – current).
POWO (2019). Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet; http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/ Retrieved Winter 2020 – current.
USDA, NRCS. (2020). The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 2 June 2020). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC, USA; accessed throughout fall of 2020.
How to Identify the Apocynaceae Dogbane and Milkweed Family
Asclepias variegata Redring Milkweed inflorescence with flowers. The milkweeds were once their own family but are now a subfamily of Apocynaceae. Page Last Updated April 25, 2026.
The Apocynaceae family is an important family to learn how to identify. It is a family of often showy, beautiful flowers that are frequently fragrant but also often highly poisonous if ingested. The name “dogbane” comes from this toxic nature that has poisoned livestock and dogs. The Apocynaceae was recently revised to include the former Asclepiadaceae, or milkweed family. There is an excellent reason to do so based on molecular phylogenetics, and the two families are similar in their morphology and other properties. However, there are a few notable differences in the Asclepiadoideae subfamily that I have included in detail in the descriptions below.
Common Botanical Description
If you’re new to plant morphology, this section is a perfect beginner’s description to teach you how to identify the Apocynaceae family, with no need to know any scientific jargon. Below is some additional information on uses of the Apocynaceae and morphology pictures you can use to help identify family members, and finally, pictures of individual species found in North America. But for researchers or those wanting to learn a more in-depth version, check out the Scientific Botanical Description below the images in addition to genus-level distribution data.
Leaves and Stems of Apocynaceae: Annual herbs to shrubs, woody vines, and trees, all having a characteristic milky white juice (latex) they release when damaged. Leaves are usually simple (not compound) and may be thin to thick and leathery. They are usually arranged in opposite pairs or whorls around the stem. In some species, the leaves are modified into spines, and the stem may appear cactus-like.
Flowers of Apocynaceae: Flowers are often large, showy, symmetrical, and come in whites, reds, blues, and yellows and may be fragrant, foul-smelling, or odorless. Petals are joined at the base to form a funnel or trumpet shape, often with twisted or contorted lobes in bud. Most flowers have nectaries at their base to attract pollinators.
Reproductive Features of Apocynaceae: There are 5 male parts (stamens) that are often fused to the female parts (ovary, style, and stigma) to create a unique central structure called a “gynostegium.” There are typically two superior ovaries (sit above where petals attach), with an often large and conspicuous style head on top that acts as a platform to receive pollen.
Fruits of Apocynaceae: The fruits are often fleshy berries or drupes (like a cherry with a hard central pit) or dry capsules that split open when ripe. The Asclepiadoideae subfamily in particular is well-known for its large pod-like capsules (follicles) containing numerous seeds accompanied by long silky hairs (comose), which allow them to disperse in the wind.
Uses of Apocynaceae
Most parts of many members of the Apocynaceae family are poisonous, hence the common family name of dogbane, since it has been used to poison dogs and other animals. The sap of most is a milky latex, which is often toxic but can sometimes be used for medicine and rubber. Many ornamentals come from this family, including Oleander, Frangipani, Carissa, Plumeria, etc. The Asclepiadoideae subfamily of the Apocynaceae are an important source of cultivated succulents or vines from Asclepias, Hoya, Araujia, Ceropegia, Stapelia,Caralluma, Decabelone, etc. Asclepias spp. are required by the famous monarch butterfly for reproduction and food. Carissa carandas is the source of the edible natal plum.
Morphology of Apocynaceae in North America
The first table shows general Apocynaceae family morphology, but then there is a second one below it showing morphology specific to the Asclepiadoideae subfamily of the Apocynaceae.
Some Apocynaceae Species Found in North America
Apocynoideae Subfamily
Adenium obesum – Sabi Star or Desert Rose
This is a drought-deciduous or evergreen shrub that is native to Africa but cultivated elsewhere. It has large swollen stems with a very enlarged caudex. Spiral leaves are clustered at branch tips. It has tubular pink flowers 4 – 5 cm wide with 5 petals.
Apocynum androsaemifolium – Spreading Dogbane
This is a branching herbaceous perennial with opposite and more or less ovate to somewhat elliptical leaves. Flowers are small, campanulate, whitish-pink, and found mostly in terminal cymes. Native throughout North America.
Apocynum cannabinum – Indian Hemp
Erect, herbaceous branching perennial with usually purplish-green stems and with opposite lanceolate to ovate leaves that usually have white hairs on the lower surface. Flowers are small greenish to cream-colored, usually in terminal inflorescences. Native throughout North America.
Cascabela ovata—Yellow Oleander
A self-supporting perennial shrub or tree with spiral, moderately thick, and leathery leaves with prominent pinnate venation. Flowers are large, showy, tubular, and yellow. The fruit is large and drupaceous with multiple large stony seeds, roughly orbicular and light green, becoming purplish when mature. Native and common in Mexico and also Central America.
Nerium oleander – Oleander or Nerium
This cultivated Apocynaceae species is originally from the Mediterranean but widely cultivated elsewhere. It has thick, leathery, lanceolate leaves in whorls of 2 – 3. Flowers are deeply 5-lobed with a fringed corolla around the mouth of the floral tube; they are very fragrant.
Pachypodium rutenbergianum—Madagascar Palm
This is a unique-looking succulent tree 3 – 8 m tall with very thick succulent branches, long spines, and an enlarged caudex. It has long, leathery, oblong–lanceolate leaves. Flowers are white with a yellow center, petals spreading in a pinwheel shape. Native to Madagascar & cultivated elsewhere.
Trachelospermum jasminoides—Star Jasmine
This is a vigorous medium-sized evergreen shrub or vine with elliptic to ovate glabrous glossy green leathery leaves. Flowers are in few-flowered cymes on long peduncles; they are very fragrant and pubescent inside the tube. This Apocynaceae member is native to Asia but widely cultivated elsewhere.
Asclepiadoideae Subfamily
Asclepias arenaria – Western Sand Milkweed
Erect herbaceous perennial with densely woolly leaves and stems. Leaves are broadly ovate and often very undulate on the margins (shown in pic). Flowers are axillary and greenish to cream-colored. Endemic to the Great Plains region of the USA, very drought-tolerant.
Asclepias asperula—Antelope Horns
This is a clump-forming 1-2 ft tall perennial with long narrow leaves that are usually folded lengthwise as shown in the photo. Flowers are usually in globose terminal inflorescences with greenish flowers with maroon highlights. Follicles usually curve like a horn. Native to the southwestern USA and northern Mexico.
Asclepias curassavica – Tropical Milkweed
A perennial native of South America but becoming widely introduced elsewhere. Flowers have purple or red corollas and yellow or orange coronas. Leaves are narrow lanceolate with acute or acuminate tips. It is not recommended to grow this plant outside of the tropics because it is confusing monarchs into overwintering in temperate climates instead of migrating.
Asclepias engelmanniana – Engelmann’s Milkweed
A tall, slender perennial with 1 – 4 branching stems with long and very narrow linear–lanceolate leaves, usually in groups of 2 – 3. Pale green flowers without horns are crowded in umbels in the upper axils. Endemic to the Great Plains of the USA.
Asclepias incarnata—Swamp Milkweed
A herbaceous perennial that is branched on the upper part of the stem and has lanceolate to linear–oblong leaves. Corolla is pink to red (rarely white), and the horn is incurved and surpasses the hood. Native to swamps and other wet areas of eastern North America.
Asclepias latifolia – Broadleaf Milkweed
This unbranched, 2 – 3 ft tall herbaceous perennial has very large, broad, somewhat obovate to oval leaves with prominent veins. Leaves are densely packed, appearing cabbage-like when young. Flowers are pale greenish to yellow, often hidden in axils by the large leaves. Native to the western USA and northern Mexico, mostly in the Great Plains.
Asclepias pumila – Plains Milkweed
This short herbaceous perennial is usually less than 30 cm tall with narrow leaves that are densely spaced, appearing whorled but, upon close inspection, are condensed alternate. Flowers are light pink or white in terminal inflorescences. Endemic to the Great Plains region of the USA.
Asclepias speciosa – Showy Milkweed
Herbaceous perennial up to 1.2 m tall with oppositely arranged, elongated, simple, entire leaves. Large, hairy, pale pink to pinkish-purple flowers in dense umbel-like cymes with prominent hoods and hooks forming a star shape. Native to western North America
Asclepias subverticillata – Horsetail Milkweed
This erect, spreading, herbaceous perennial may or may not be branched, growing to 1 m tall with sparse, narrow, linear leaves with revolute margins growing in whorls of 3 – 5 at branch nodes. Star-like whitish or cream flowers grow in the upper axillary umbels. Native to the central and southwestern USA and northern Mexico.
Asclepias syriaca—Common Milkweed
A tall perennial up to 1 m tall with large ovate to somewhat elliptic leaves with pale green on the abaxial surface. Flowers are in somewhat pendulous axillary umbels, usually pink (rarely white), with inflexed horns. The follicles have a very roughly textured surface (shown in photo). Native to the eastern USA and Canada.
Asclepias tuberosa—Butterfly weed
A bushy herbaceous perennial to 60 cm tall, its pubescent stem may be single or branched in the top half. Leaves are linear to more or less lanceolate and may be opposite or alternate on branches. Flowers are in terminal flat-topped umbels of yellow to red-orange flowers. Native to southeastern Canada and the eastern and southwestern USA.
Asclepias variegata—Red Ring Milkweed
Herbaceous perennial with usually unbranched stems with several pairs of opposite broadly oblong to ovate leaves. Flowers in 1 – 4 globose, compact umbels with showy white and pinkish-red tinged flowers with divergent hoods. Native to eastern North America, rare in the north, most common in the southeastern USA.
Asclepias verticillata – Whorled Milkweed
An erect perennial with branching only at the top of the plant (or unbranched) with numerous narrow linear leaves in whorls of 3 – 6. Flowers are in several umbels crowded in the upper axils with white to greenish flowers with somewhat divergent hoods and horns that are larger than the hoods. Native to eastern North America and parts of western North America.
Asclepias viridis – Green Antelope Horns
A herbaceous perennial common on overgrazed pastures and roadsides. Simple leaves, often with undulate edges, are arranged alternately on the stems. Flowers are green with purplish hoods, and they lack the horns usually present in the genus. Endemic to the south-central and some of the southeastern USA.
Cyanchum laeve – Climbing Milkweed or Sand Vine
This is a climbing vine that is sparsely hairy with opposite cordate leaves with palmate venation. Flowers are in axillary umbellate cymes of 5 – 40 flowers. The fruit is an ovate follicle. Native to central and eastern USA, southeastern Canada
A tendril-climbing perennial vine with linear to oblong leaves that are pubescent and somewhat succulent. Axillary flowers have pubescent white petals. Native to the southern USA, Mexico, and the tropical Americas.
Rauvolfioideae Subfamily
Carissa macrocarpa—Natal Plum
Spiny evergreen shrub with leathery, glossy dark green leaves. Flowers are very fragrant and white with long narrow petals. Fruit is a large, reddish, edible drupe. Native to Africa, cultivated in southern North America and tropical Americas
Catharanthus roseus – Madagascar Periwinkle
An evergreen subshrub with glabrous ovate leaves in opposite pairs. Flowers are white with yellow or red centers or dark pink with red centers. Native to Madagascar but frequently cultivated in North America.
Plumeria rubra – Red Frangipani
A medium to large shrub or small tree with a succulent trunk and branches. Drought-deciduous or semi-evergreen with large leaves clustered at branch ends. Flowers are white to pink and very fragrant in terminal umbels. Native to Mexico and tropical America, widely cultivated elsewhere.
Rauvolfia tetraphylla – Devil Pepper
A much-branched shrub or small tree with 4 (3 – 5) whorled obovate, elliptic, or ~oblong leaves per node. Flowers are small and white in axillary clusters. The fruit is a small red 2-seeded drupe. Native to Mexico and the tropical Americas.
A scrambling vine with opposite semi-evergreen leaves with a waxy cuticle and tiny hairs, sometimes with ciliate margins. Flowers are pink to violet, partially connate, and pinwheel-like. Native to the western Mediterranean, widely cultivated as a groundcover, and highly invasive in some areas.
A scrambling vine with opposite glabrous evergreen leaves that are smaller and narrower than V. major and never have a ciliate margin. Flowers are similar to V. major but a little smaller. This Apocynaceae member is native to Eurasia, widely cultivated and highly invasive in some areas.
Scientific Botanical Description of the Apocynaceae
Learn how to identify the Apocynaceae family and the milkweed subfamily with this scientific botanical description.
Flowers of the Apocynaceae Family
Plants are hermaphrodites; pollination is entomophilous and often conspicuously specialized with trapping mechanisms using modified stylar heads or specialized anthers. Flowers are terminal or axillary and either solitary or aggregated in panicles, cymose (often umbelliform), or rarely racemose inflorescences. The flowers are often large and showy and are usually bracteate and bracteolate. They are regular, 4-5 merous, tetracyclic, and may be malodorous, fragrant, or odorless. A hypogynous disk is usually present except in the Asclepiadoideae, where it is always absent. The perianth has ten parts in two whorls with a distinct calyx and corolla, which is isomerous. The calyx has five parts in one whorl, is usually connate (at least basally), is regular, and is quincuncial (Apocynoideae), imbricate (Asclepiadoideae), or valvular (Asclepiadoideae). The corolla also has five parts in one whorl and may or may not be appendiculate. The corolla is connate with the lobes shorter than or longer than the tube. It is usually contorted or rarely valvate, is funnel-shaped or salverform and regular, and comes in various shades of white, yellow, red, orange, pink, purple, or blue.
Androecium of the Apocynaceae Family
The androecium can vary depending on the Apocynaceae subfamily or tribe. Still, there are five members that are adnate and inserted near the base (always Asclepiadoideae), midway down, or in the throat of the corolla tube. They are usually united with the gynoecium (most Apocynoideae) and may form a gynostegium (always in Asclepiadoideae), or they are free of the gynoecium (most Plumerieae, Periplocoideae). They are free of one another or coherent (always one adelphous in Asclepiadoideae) and are one whorled and consist of exclusively fertile stamens. The stamens are isomerous with the perianth and alternate with the corolla members. The anthers are filantherous to sessile and may or may not be appendiculate. In the Asclepiadoideae, the filaments are almost always appendiculate, with their short filaments ornamented from their bases with nectaries. They are separate, cohering, or connivent (often sagittate in Apocynoideae and distinct from one another but attached adaxially to the stylar head in Asclepiadoideae). The anthers are basifixed or adnate, non-versatile, tetrasporangiate, introrse, and usually bilocular and bisporangiate. In Asclepiadoideae, the anthers are appendaged with horny wings and membranous connective appendages contributing to the coronal complex.
Gynoecium of the Apocynaceae Family
The gynoecium almost always has two carpels but occasionally may have 2–5 (6–8) (especially in Pleiocarpa). Sometimes the ovary is interpreted as two locular when it is actually the separate ovaries of a syncarpous gynoecium. The pistil has 1–2 cells. The gynoecium is synstylovarious to syncarpous or synstylous (Asclepiadoideae, Plumerieae, Pleiocarpa) and is often superior or otherwise partly inferior. When synstylous, the carpel has 2–50 ovules. Placentation is marginal when synstylous. The gynoecium is usually transverse but always median in Asclepiadoideae. There is usually one style but always two in Asclepiadoideae that are partially joined (free below) by the dilated style head with lateral stigmatic surfaces that alternate with the stamens. There is one stigma that is usually massively expanded and may be contracted in the middle with a ring of hairs or a membrane below. Stigmas are wet or dry types, papillate or not, and either Group II, III, or IV types. Placentation when unilocular with two placentas is parietal and when bilocular (mostly) axile or apical. When bilocular (usually), there are 5–50 (1-4) ovules per locule, and when unilocular or incompletely bilocular, there are 2–100. Ovules are pendulous, anatropous, unitegmic, tenuinucellate (Apocynoideae), or pseudocrassinucellate (Asclepiadoideae).
Fruit of the Apocynaceae Family
The fruit of Apocynaceae are often a fleshy or non-fleshy dehiscent capsule or schizocarp with two mericarps of follicles, berrylets, nutlets, or drupelets. Sometimes it is a fleshy indehiscent berry or a drupe. In Asclepiadoideae, it is always a pair of follicles with thin papery placental flaps or may be a single follicle by abortion of the other carpel. Seeds are oily and may or may not be endospermic or not. They are usually flat and conspicuously hairy (comose in Apocynoideae and Asclepiadoideae) or not and may be winged or wingless.
Habit & Leaf Form of the Apocynaceae Family
The Apocynaceae are mostly annual or perennial shrubs, lianas, or herbs but sometimes are trees, and those trees may have buttress roots (a few in Tabernaemontana and Dyera). All forms are laticiferous, containing a milky latex characteristic of the family. They are self-supporting or climbing-stem twiners, root climbers, or scramblers; when twining, they usually twine anticlockwise. Some plants may be switch plants with succulent, photosynthetic stems. Others have peculiar vegetative forms like the leaves modified as passive pitcher traps in Dischidia rafflesiana. Leaves are usually well-developed but may be very reduced. They are persistent and simple. Leaves are herbaceous, leathery, membranous, or rarely modified into spines. They may be attached alternately, opposite, whorled (three per whorl), or rarely spiral. The leaf lamina is entire and is frequently pinnately veined but may also be one-veined or pinnately to palmately veined. Leaves are usually exstipulate but may be stipulate and sometimes are reduced to colleters found in the stipular position. Domatia occur in 18 genera as pits, pockets, or hair tufts. The leaf lamina is usually dorsiventral, sometimes bifacial, or isobilateral in Nerium oleander. The epidermis sometimes contains crystal idioblasts. Diverse forms of hairs are often found, and they may be eglandular or glandular, often with glandular, shaggy hairs at the lamina bases and on the petiole. Complex hairs are usually not present (except for Pachypodium).
Taxonomy of the Apocynaceae
The Apocynaceae contains 4555 (to 5100) species in 400 genera contained within five subfamilies. It is part of the Gentianales order of the core eudicots. The Asclepiadoideae was recently included in Apocynaceae, greatly increasing the number of species and genera. As with most families, thanks to molecular phylogenetics clarifying our understanding of the plant families, the genera and species have been undergoing revisions. If major updates have been made, I will also update the lists here.
Apocynoideae is a diverse subfamily of annual or perennial herbs, shrubs, lianas, and the occasional tree. They exude milky latex, but it is sometimes clear. Leaves are simple and entire but otherwise variable. They usually are exstipulate or have very small stipules. The stamens are almost always usually united with the gynoecium but do not form a true gynostegium; they also lack pollinaria.
Asclepiadoideae is a subfamily that can usually be easily recognized by the presence of a gynostegium with its one adelphous stamens and two styles that are partially joined (free below) by the dilated style head with lateral stigmatic surfaces that alternate with the stamens. The stamens are often appendaged at their bases, forming “hoods” and “horns.” There is no hypogynous disk, and the gynoecium is also always median; both of these characteristics are unlike the rest of the family. The fruit is always a follicle (1-2). Most species exude the same milky latex as most of the family.
Periplocoideae is a family of herbs, shrubs, vines, or rarely small trees. Colleters are present in the sinuses of the calyx. The stamens are free of the gynoecium (unlike most of the family, excluding Plumerieae in Rauvolfioideae), but the triangular anthers are adnate to the style head.
Rauvolfioideae is split into eleven diverse tribes. In general, they are mostly trees and shrubs with some herbs or lianas. They also have variable fruit and floral morphology. Sometimes the stamens are free of the gynoecium (unlike most of the family except Periplocoideae).
Secamonoideae is a small subfamily of lianas or vines that climb by twining; rarely they may be shrubs. Sometimes there are colleters on the adaxial leaf surface.
The Apocynaceae are mostly subtropical to tropical with a few temperate representatives. They are cosmopolitan in distribution, and they are widely found throughout the entire Americas, including some herbaceous Apocynaceae species that are found as far north as Arctic Canada.
Distribution of Apocynaceae in the Americas
Canadian ApocynaceaeGenera Include:
Apocynoideae: Apocynum 2 of 4 N temperate spp native in almost all of Canada inc Arctic but exc NU and Labrador, 1 NAM hybrid sp also native in this range.
Asclepiadoideae: Asclepias 15 of 206 Americas & Africa spp native in all S provinces but intro in NL (exc Labrador); Cynanchum 1 of 256 subcosmopolitan spp intro ON; Vincetoxicum 3 of 248 Old World spp intro BC, ON, QC, NB. Rauvolfioideae: Vinca 2 of 7 Mediterranean spp intro BC, ON, QC, NS and NB.
USA Apocynaceae Genera Include:
Apocynoideae: Angadenia 1 of 2 Caribbean & SE USA endemic spp native FL, NC; Apocynum 2 of 4 N temperate spp native all of USA inc AK, plus 1 NAM hybrid sp native in this range; Beaumontia 1 of 9 SE Asia spp intro HI?; Cycladenia monospecific SW USA endemic CA, AZ, UT; Echites 1 of 14 NAM, CAM & Caribbean spp native FL; Mandevilla 4 of 177 former Americas endemic spp native AZ, NM, TX; Nerium monospecific Mediterranean sp intro most of S border states exc NM, also UT, CA; Pentalinon 1 of 2 Mexico, CAM & Caribbean endemic spp native S FL; Rhabdadenia 1 of 3 S NAM & Neo endemic spp native FL; Thyrsanthella monospecific SE USA endemic of OK, TX, MO, AR, LA, IL, IN, KY, TN, MS, AL, GA, FL, SC, NC, VA, DE; Trachelospermum 2 of 9 mostly S+E Asia spp inc 1 sp native and 1 sp intro TX, OK, MO, AR, LA, MS, AL, GA, FL, SC, NC, VA, MD, DE, TN, KY, IL, IN.
Asclepiadoideae: Ampelamus 2 of 3 Americas endemic spp native SE USA from NE S to TX and E to PA, S to FL plus ID, AZ, NY; Araujia (inc Morrenia) 2 of 13 former Neo endemic spp intro CA, GA, FL; Asclepias 75 of 206 Americas & Africa spp native (everywhere) and intro (some states) all of USA and native HI; Calotropis 2 of 3 Old World Tropics spp intro CA, FL and HI; Cynanchum 17 of 256 subcosmopolitan spp native and intro most of USA exc WA, OR, WY, MT, CO, ND, SD, inc 1 sp formerly known as Metaplexis intro IA;Funastrum 5-7 of 21 former Americas endemic spp native CA, NV, UT, CO, AZ, NM, TX, OK, AR, FL, now intro India; Gomphocarpus 1 of 20 African & Arabian spp intro CA?; Gonolobus ? of 119 former Americas endemic spp native AZ, KS, OK, TX, MO, AR, LA, IL, IN, KY, TN, MS, AL, GA, FL, NC, SC, VA, MD; Hoya 1 of 54 S Asia & Australasia spp intro HI; Matelea 24 of 271 Americas endemic spp native in all S half of USA from CA E to PA but exc NV, UT, CO; Metastelma ? of 100 Americas endemic spp native AZ, NM, TX, FL; Orthosia ? of 38 Americas endemic spp native MS, FL, GA, SC;Pattalias 1 of 2 S NAM & Caribbean endemic spp native TX, LA, MS, AL, GA, FL, SC, NC; Polystemma 1 of 5 S NAM + CAM endemic spp native AZ?; Stapelia 1 of 31 S Africa spp intro HI; Vincetoxicum 3 of 248 Old World spp intro CA, NE, KS, MN, MO, MI, WI, IL, IN, KY, OH, PA, NJ, MD, NY, CT, RI, MA, VT, NH, ME.
Periplocoideae: Cryptostegia 2 of 2 Madagascar spp intro TX, FL; Periploca 1 of 17 African spp intro KS, OK, TX, TN, VA, PA, NJ, NY, CT, RI.
Rauvolfioideae:Allamanda 1 of 15 former Neo endemic spp intro FL; Alstonia 1 of 44 pantropical (exc SAM) spp intro FL and HI; Alyxia 1 of 106 SE Asia, Australia & Pacific spp native HI; Amsonia 16 of 16 American & SE Asian spp inc 14 spp native all S USA from CA E to NJ but exc WV and 2 spp intro inc NY, CT, MA, inc 10 endemics to USA, 4 of which are narrow endemics of AZ (2), NM (1), OK + AR (1);Carissa 1 of 9 Old World Tropics spp intro AZ, TX, FL; Catharanthus 1 of 9 Indian & Madagascar spp intro CA, TX, LA, MS, FL, GA, SC, NC, OH and HI; Haplophyton 1 of 2 S NAM & N CAM endemic spp native AZ, NM, TX; Ochrosia 4 of 44 tropical Asia & Pacific spp intro FL, native HI; Plumeria 1 of 19 former Americas endemic spp native FL, now intro SE Asia, Africa; Pteralyxia 2 of 2 spp endemic HI; Rauvolfia 3 of 74 pantropical spp native FL, intro and native HI; Tabernaemontana 2 of 123 pantropical spp spp native FL, intro HI; Thevetia 1 of 3 former Mexico & Neo endemic spp intro TX, FL, HI?; Vallesia 2 of 11 Americas endemic spp inc 1 sp native and 1 sp intro CA, FL; Vinca 3 of 7 Mediterranean spp intro most of USA exc NV, OK, CO, WY, ND, SD.
Mexico ApocynaceaeGenera Include:
Apocynoideae: Apocynum 1 of 4 N temperate spp native N Mexico, plus 1 NAM hybrid sp native in this range; Cameraria 1 of 7 spp former Mexico & N Neo endemic spp native SE Mexico, this sp is now intro SE China; Cascabela 5 of 6 former Mexico & Neo endemic spp native all of Mexico inc 3 endemics of Mexico, 1 of which is a narrow endemics of Mch (1), genus now intro pantropical; Echites 7 of 14 NAM, CAM & Caribbean spp native most of Mexico exc BC, BCS, Son, Sin, inc 1 sp endemic to SW+C Mexico; Forsteronia ?? of 41 Neo endemic spp native SW+SE Mexico, Ver, Chp; Laubertia 1 of 4 Mexico & Neo endemic spp endemic most of Mexico exc Ver; Mandevilla ?? of 177 former Americas endemic spp native all of Mexico, genus now intro SE China; Mesechites 1 of 8 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native Mexico exc BC, BCS, Son, Sin, Mex, Cd Mex, Pue, Tlx, Mor; Nerium monospecific Mediterranean sp intro most of Mexico exc BC, BCS, Son, Sin, Ver; Odontadenia 1 of 21 Neo endemic spp native SW+SE Mexico, Chp; Pentalinon 1 of 2 Mexico, CAM & Caribbean endemic spp native SW+C+SE Mexico; Pinochia 2 of 4 Mexico & N Neo endemic spp native SW+SE Mexico, Chp, Ver; Prestonia ?? of 65 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native most of Mexico exc BC, BCS, Son, Sin; Rhabdadenia 1 of 3 S NAM & Neo endemic spp native Ver, Cam, Tab, Yuc, QR, Chp; Thenardia 3 of 3 S Mexico & Honduras endemic spp native SW+C+SE Mexico, inc 2 endemics of SW+C Mexico; Thoreauea 3 of 3 spp endemic to SW Mexico + Ver;Tintinnabularia 2 of 3 Mesoamerica endemic spp native Oax, Chp, Ver, inc 1 narrow endemic of Ver.
Asclepiadoideae:Ampelamus 2 of 3 Americas endemic spp native Mexico exc Ver, Chips, Tab, Cam, Yuc, QR; Asclepias ?? of 206 Americas & Africa spp native all of Mexico; Blepharodon 1 of 26 spp Mexico & Neo endemic native all of Mexico; Calotropis 1 of 3 Old World Tropics spp intro SW+C+SE Mexico; Cynanchum ?? of 256 subcosmopolitan spp native all of Mexico; Fischeria 1 of 8 Neo endemic spp native SW+C+SE Mexico; Funastrum 13 of 21 former Americas endemic spp native throughout all of Mexico, inc 3 endemic to Mexico, 1 of which is a narrow endemic of BCN + BCS?, 1 sp now intro India; Gomphocarpus 1 of 20 African & Arabian spp intro SW Mexico; Gonolobus ?? of 119 former Americas endemic spp native all of Mexico, now intro Africa; Jobinia ?? of 25 Neo endemic spp native Ver; Macroscepis 4 of 16 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native all of Mexico, inc 2 narrow endemics of Chp (1), Yuc (1); Marsdenia ?? of 305 pantropical spp native all of Mexico; Matelea (inc Dictyanthus 16 spp endemic Mexico) 16+ ?? of 271 Neo endemic spp native all of Mexico; Metastelma ?? of 100 Americas endemic spp native all of Mexico inc Mexican Pacific Is;Orthosia ?? of 38 Americas endemic spp native most of Mexico exc BC, BCS, Son, Sin; Oxypetalum ?? of 135 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native NE+SW+SE Mexico, Ver; Pattalias 2 of 2 S NAM & Caribbean endemic spp native all of Mexico, inc 1 narrow endemic of BCN, BCS; Pherotrichis 4 of 4 Mexico & N CAM endemic spp native most of Mexico exc Ver, inc 3 Mexican endemics of N Mexico (1), SW Mexico (1), Jal + Mch (1); Polystemma 5 of 5 S NAM + CAM endemic spp native NW+C+SE Mexico, Ver, inc 2 spp endemic to Mexico, 1 of which is a narrow endemic of Son; Ruehssia ?? of 42 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native NE+SW+SE Mexico, Ver, Chp; Stelmagonum monospecific endemic of SW Mexico; Tassadia ?? of 31 Neo endemic spp native SW+SE Mexico, Ver.
Periplocoideae: Cryptostegia 2 of 2 Madagascar spp intro W+SE Mexico.
Rauvolfioideae: Allamanda 1 of 15 former Neo endemic spp intro SW+C Mexico; Alstonia ?? of 44 pantropical (exc SAM) spp native SW+C+SE Mexico; Amsonia 4 of 16 mostly Americas spp native to N Mexico; Aspidosperma ?? of 77 Neo endemic spp native SW+SE Mexico, Ver; Carissa 1 of 9 Old World Tropics spp intro SW+C Mexico; Catharanthus 1 of 9 Indian & Madagascar spp intro SW+SE Mexico; Haplophyton 2 of 2 S NAM & N CAM endemic spp native most of Mexico exc Ver; Plumeria 2 of 19 former Americas endemic spp native all of Mexico, now intro SE Asia, Africa; Rauvolfia ?? of 74 pantropical spp native all of Mexico; Tabernaemontana ?? of 123 pantropical spp native all of Mexico; Thevetia 1 of 3 former Mexico & Neo endemic spp native most of Mexico exc BC, BCS, Son, Sin, sp now intro SE China; Vallesia 8 of 11 Americas endemic spp native all of Mexico, inc 5 narrow endemics of Son (1), Sin (1), BC (1), Jal (1), Oax (1);Vinca 1 of 7 Mediterranean spp intro SW+C+SE Mexico.
Neotropical ApocynaceaeGenera Include:
Apocynoideae:Allomarkgrafia 10 of 10 Neo endemic spp Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru; Angadenia 2 of 2 Caribbean & SE USA endemic spp native Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, inc 1 Caribbean endemic; Anodendron 1 of 17 S+E + Tropical Asia spp intro Trinidad-Tobago; Asketanthera 4 of 4 Greater Antilles endemic spp of Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti; Bahiella 2 of 2 spp narrow endemics of NE Brazil; Beaumontia 1 of 9 SE Asia spp intro Costa Rica, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras; Cascabela 3 of 6 spp former Mexico & Neo endemic spp native CAM S through tropical SAM to Peru, Bolivia, NE Argentina, SE Brazil (exc NE Brazil), intro Bermuda, Bahamas, Antilles (exc Cayman Is, Netherlands Antilles), Africa, India, Asia; Echites 13 of 14 NAM, CAM & Caribbean endemic spp of CAM, Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Greater Antilles, Leeward Is, inc 4 narrow endemics of Cuba (2), Costa Rica (1), Panama (1); Forsteronia 41 of 41 Neo endemic spp native Cuba, Jamaica, Trinidad-Tobago, CAM, tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc N Chile); Funtumia 1 of 2 African spp intro Cuba, Puerto Rico, Trinidad-Tobago, El Salvador; Galactophora 6 of 6 SAM endemic spp of Colombia, N+C Brazil, Venezuela, Guyana, Peru, Bolivia; Hylaea 2 of 2 N SAM endemic spp of S Venezuela, N Brazil; Laubertia 3 of 4 Neo endemic spp native Belize, Colombia, Venezuela, N Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, inc 2 narrow endemics of Belize (1), N Brazil (1); Macropharynx 15 of 15 Neo endemic spp of Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Brazil, N Argentina; Malouetia ?? of 31 Neo & W Africa spp native CAM (exc El Salvador), Windward Is, Colombia, Venezuela, French Guiana, Suriname, Guyana, Brazil (exc C Brazil), Peru, Bolivia, intro Cuba; Mandevilla 177 of 177 former Americas endemic spp native S USA, Mexico, CAM, Cuba, Jamaica, Trinidad-Tobago, tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc N Chile), now intro SE China;Mesechites 8 of 8 Neo endemic spp native CAM, Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, Trinidad-Tobago, tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc Uruguay and N Chile), inc 6 narrow endemics of Cuba (2), Hispaniola (1), Hispaniola + Jamaica (1), Colombia (1), Peru (1); Neobracea 8 of 8 narrow endemics of Cuba (7) and Cuba + Bahamas (1); Nerium monospecific Mediterranean sp intro CAM, S Brazil; Odontadenia 21 of 21 Neo endemic spp native CAM (exc El Salvador), Hispaniola, Colombia, N+E+C Brazil, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Trinidad-Tobago, intro Windward Is, inc 4 narrow endemics of Brazil (2), COlombia (1), Hispaniola (1); Parahancornia 7 of 7 NW SAM endemic spp of Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, N Brazil, Peru, Bolivia; Pentalinon 2 of 2 Mexico, CAM & Caribbean endemic spp native Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Greater Antilles, SW Caribbean, Leeward & Windward Is, Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua; Pinochia 4 of 4 Mexico & N Neo endemic spp native Guatemala, Belize, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Greater Antilles (exc Cayman Is), inc 2 spp endemic to Greater Antilles; Prestonia 65 of 65 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native CAM, tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc N Chile), Leeward & Windward Is, Trinidad-Tobago; Rhabdadenia 3 of 3 S NAM & Neo endemic spp native CAM, Bahamas, Greater Antilles, Leeward & Windward Is, Trinidad-Tobago, tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc N Chile); Secondatia 5 of 5 Neo endemic spp of Jamaica, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, inc 1 narrow endemic of Jamaica; Stipecoma monospecific SAM endemic of Bolivia, C+E Brazil; Strophanthus 1 of 39 Old World Tropics spp intro Trinidad-Tobago; Temnadenia 3 of 3 SAM endemic spp of Colombia, Brazil (exc N); Thenardia 1 of 3 S Mexico + Honduras endemic spp native Honduras; Tintinnabularia 2 of 3 Mesoamérica endemic spp native Guatemala, Honduras, inc 1 narrow endemic of Honduras.
Asclepiadoideae: Ampelamus 1 of 3 Americas endemic spp endemic of Colombia; Anemotrochus 3 of 3 Caribbean endemic spp native Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica; Araujia 13 of 13 former SAM endemic spp native Bolivia, C+SE+S Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina, intro C Chile, S USA and pantropical; Asclepias 12 of 206 Americas & Africa spp native CAM, Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Antilles (exc Aruba), Trinidad-Tobago, Galapagos, most of SAM exc Chile, intro N Chile, genus is most diverse in NAM and Africa; Barjonia 7 of 7 Neo endemic spp of Brazil, Suriname, Bolivia; Blepharodon 26 of 26 spp Mexico & Neo endemic spp native CAM, SAM S to Peru, Bolivia, NE Argentina, S Brazil, inc 15 narrow endemics of Colombia (5), Brazil (5), Bolivia (2), Venezuela (2), Guyana (1); Calotropis 2 of 3 Old World Tropics spp intro Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Antilles, Trinidad-Tobago, Colombia, Venezuela, N+C+E Brazil, Paraguay, Bolivia; Cristobalia 2 of 2 SAM spp of endemic Bolivia, N Argentina; Cynanchum 12 of 256 subcosmopolitan spp native in Mexico, CAM, Cuba, Jamaica, tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc N Chile), most of genus is in Old World tropics;Diplolepis 9 of 14 spp S SAM endemic spp native N+C CHile, NW Argentina, inc 4 narrow endemics of N+C CHile (3), C Chile (1), rest of genus endemic to Patagonia Chile & Argentina; Ditassa 112 of 112 SAM endemic spp of Colombia S to N Argentina exc N Chile, Paraguay; Fischeria 8 of 8 Neo endemic spp native CAM (exc El Salvador), Cuba, Jamaica, Trinidad-Tobago, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, NE Argentina; Funastrum 12 of 21 former Americas endemic spp native Antilles ( exc Aruba, Leewards, Netherlands Antilles), Trinidad-Tobago, CAM, tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc N Chile), inc 5 narrow endemics of Guatemala (1), Bolivia (1), Colombia (1), SE Brazil (1), Galapagos (1), 1 sp now intro India; Gomphocarpus 1 of 20 African & Arabian spp intro CAM (exc Belize), Cuba, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Leeward Is, Colombia, Venezuela, Suriname, Brazil, Uruguay, NE Argentina, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia; Gonolobus 119 of 119 former Americas endemic spp native from S USA, Mexico, Greater Antilles (exc Cayman Is), Leeward & Windward Is, CAM, tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc N Chile, Suriname, French Guiana), now intro Africa; Gyrostelma monospecific endemic of C+SE Brazil; Hemipogon 8 of 8 SAM endemic spp of Peru, Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay; Hoya 1 of 54 S Asia & Australasia spp intro Cuba, Trinidad-Tobago, Puerto Rico, Leeward Is; Hypolobus monospecific endemic NE Brazil; Ibatia 26 of 26 Neo endemic spp Panama, Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Lesser Antilles, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Brazil, Paraguay, Ecuador, Bolivia, NE Argentina; Jobinia 25 of 25 Neo endemic spp native Guatemala, Honduras, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, C+S+E Brazil, N Argentina, Uruguay; Kerbera monospecific endemic SE Brazil;Lachnostoma 11 of 11 Neo endemic Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela; Macroscepis 14 of 16 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native CAM (exc Belize), Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, N Argentina, S+SE Brazil, inc 8 narrow endemics of S+SE Brazil (4), Colombia (1), Venezuela (1), Paraguay (1);Manothrix 2 of 2 spp endemic SE Brazil; Marsdenia ?? of 306 pantropical spp native CAM, Greater Antilles (exc Cayman Is), Leeward & Windward Is, Trinidad-Tobago, tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc N Chile); Matelea (inc Dictyanthus, Labidostelma) 271 of 271 Neo endemic spp native USA, Mexico, CAM, Bahamas, Greater Antilles (exc Cayman Is), Leeward & Windward Is, Trinidad-Tobago, tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc N Chile); Metastelma 100 spp of 100 Americas endemic spp native S USA, Mexico, Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Antilles, CAM, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, N+E+S Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, N Argentina; Minaria 22 of 22 SAM endemic spp of Brazil, Bolivia, NE Argentina; Monsanima 2 of 2 narrow endemic spp of E Brazil; Morilloa 4 of 4 narrow endemic spp of E Brazil; Nautonia monospecific E SAM endemic of C+SE+S Brazil, Paraguay, NE Argentina; Nephradenia 5 of 5 N SAM endemic spp of Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, N+E+C Brazil, Bolivia; Orthosia 38 of 38 Americas endemic spp native S USA, Mexico, CAM (exc Belize), Colombia, Venezuela, E+S Brazil, Uruguay, N Argentina, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Bahamas, Greater Antilles (exc Cayman Is); Oxypetalum 135 of 135 Mexico & Neo endemic spp of Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama, Greater Antilles (exc Cayman Is), Leeward Is, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, N Argentina; Pattalias 1 of 2 S NAM & Caribbean endemic spp native Belize, Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Cayman Is, Cuba; Pentacyphus 3 of 3 N+W SAM endemic spp high Andean Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, inc 1 narrow endemic of Caldas Colombia; Peplonia 9 of 9 SAM endemic spp of Peru, Bolivia, E+C+S Brazil, Paraguay; Petalostelma 7 of 7 SAM endemic spp of Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, N Argentina; Phaeostemma 7 of 7 SAM endemic spp of Venezuela, Suriname, disnjunct S+SE Brazil, NE Argentina; Pherotrichis 1 of 4 Mexico & N CAM endemic spp native Guatemala; Philibertia 41 of 41 spp W+S SAM endemic spp of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, N+C Chile, Argentina; Polystemma 2 of 5 S NAM & CAM endemic spp native Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica; Pruskortizia 2 of 2 N SAM endemic spp of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, N Brazil;Pseudolachnostoma 8 of 8 Neo endemic spp of Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela, N Brazil, Trinidad-Tobago; Ptycanthera 2 of 2 spp endemic Cuba, Hispaniola; Rhytidostemma 8 of 8 Neo endemic spp of Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, C+N Brazil, Ecuador, Peru; Rojasia 2 of 2 SAM endemic spp of Bolivia, Paraguay, S Brazil, NE Argentina; Ruehssia 42 of 42 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native Costa Rica, Panama, Leeward & Windward Is, tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc N Chile, Uruguay); Schistonema monospecific endemic Peru; Schubertia 6 of 6 SAM endemic spp of Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Brazil, N Argentina; Scyphostelma 28 of 28 Neo endemic spp of Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia; Stephanotis 1 of 4 Madagascar spp intro Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Leeward Is, Trinidad-Tobago; Tassadia 31 of 31 Neo endemic spp native S Mexico, Cuba, Trinidad-Tobago, Belize, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, tropical SAM S to Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, S Brazil; Topea 2 of 2 narrow endemic spp of NE Argentina; Tressensia monospecific endemic NE Argentina; Tweedia 6 of 6 SAM endemic spp Bolivia, N+C Chile, Argentina, Paraguay, inc 4 narrow endemics of C Chile (2), N+C Chile (1), NW Argentina (1); Tylodontia 4 of 4 narrow endemic spp of Cuba; Vailia monospecific W SAM endemic of Ecuador, Bolivia, Peru.
Rauvolfioideae: Allamanda 15 of 15 former Neo endemic spp native Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, NE Argentina, intro in Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, Trinidad-Tobago, Galapagos and pantropical; Alstonia ?? of 44 pantropical spp native CAM (exc Belize), intro Trinidad-Tobago, absent SAM; Ambelania 3 of 3 SAM endemic spp Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, N+NE Brazil, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname; Anechites monospecific Neo endemic Honduras S to Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Greater Antilles (exc Cayman Is); Aspidosperma 77 of 77 Neo endemic spp native from S Mexico S through CAM and tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc N Chile), Hispaniola, Trinidad-Tobago, Venezuelan Antilles; Cameraria 7 of 7 spp former Mexico & N Neo endemic spp native Belize, Guatemala, Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, Greater Antilles, inc 6 single island endemics of Cuba (4), Hispaniola (1), Dominican Republic (1), 7th sp is wider ranging and now intro SE China; Carissa 1 of 9 Old World Tropics spp Honduras, Nicaragua, Bahamas, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Leeward & Windward Is, Trinidad-Tobago; Catharanthus 1 of 9 Indian & Madagascar spp intro CAM, Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Antilles (exc Cayman Is, Venezuelan Antilles), SW Caribbean, Galapagos, French Guiana; Cerbera 1 of 6 Old World Tropics spp intro Trinidad-Tobago; Chamaeclitandra monospecific African sp intro Trinidad-Tobago; Condylocarpon 7 of 7 Neo endemic spp of Nicaragua, Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, NE Argentina, Trinidad-Tobago; Couma 5 of 5 Neo endemic spp Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Suriname, Guyana, French Guiana, N+NE Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia; Geissospermum 5 of 5 SAM endemic spp of Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, N+E Brazil, Peru, Bolivia; Hancornia monospecific SAM endemic of Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, Peru; Haplophyton 2 of 2 S NAM & N CAM endemic spp native Cuba, Guatemala; Himatanthus 9 of 9 Neo endemic spp Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, Venezuela, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname;Kopsia 1 of 24 mostly Australasian spp intro Trinidad-Tobago; Lacmellea 24 of 24 Neo endemic spp native Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, N+C+E Brazil, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana; Landolphia 1 of 63 African spp intro Trinidad-Tobago; Laxoplumeria 5 of 5 Neo endemic spp of Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, N+C+SE Brazil, French Guiana; Macoubea 3 of 3 Neo endemic spp Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, N+NE Brazil; Microplumeria monospecific N SAM endemic of Colombia, Venezuela, N Brazil; Molongum 3 of 3 N SAM endemic spp of Colombia, Venezuela, N Brazil; Mortoniella monospecific CAM endemic of Belize, Nicaragua, Costa Rica; Mucoa 2 of 2 N SAM endemic spp of Colombia, Venezuela, N Brazil, Peru; Neocouma 2 of 2 N SAM endemic spp of Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, N Brazil; Pacouria 3 of 3 N SAM endemic spp of Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, N+SE Brazil, Bolivia, Peru; Plumeria 19 of 19 former Americas endemic spp native CAM, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Antilles (exc Aruba, Netherlands Antilles), SW Caribbean, intro Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Netherlands Antilles, Trinidad-Tobago, and 2 spp now intro tropical Asia, Africa; Rauvolfia ?? of 74 spp pantropical spp native CAM, Antilles (exc Netherlands Antilles), tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc Uruguay, N Chile); Rhigospira monospecific N SAM endemic spp of Colombia, Venezuela, N Brazil, Peru; Skytanthus 3 of 3 narrow SAM endemic spp of E Brazil (2), N+C Chile (1); Spongiosperma 6 of 6 N SAM endemic spp of Colombia, Venezuela, N+NE Brazil; Strempeliopsis 2 of 2 narrow single island endemic spp of Cuba (1), W Jamaica (1); Tabernaemontana ?? of 123 pantropical spp native Antilles (exc Aruba, Netherlands Antilles), SW Caribbean, tropical SAM S to Peru, Bolivia, NE Argentina; Thevetia 3 of 3 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native CAM, Cuba, Colombia, Venezuela, N+C Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, NE Argentina; Vallesia 6 of 11 Americas endemic spp native Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Costa Rica, Colombia, Venezuela, N Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, N Argentina, inc 2 narrow endemics of Galapagos (1), Venezuela (1); Vinca 2 of 7 Mediterranean spp intro Guatemala, Costa Rica, Colombia, Venezuela, Bolivia, C Chile, Uruguay.
Patagonia ApocynaceaeGenera Include:
Apocynoideae: Elytropus monospecific endemic C+S Chile, S Argentina.
Asclepiadoideae: Asclepias 1 of 206 Americas & Africa spp native S Argentina; Diplolepis 10 of 14 spp S SAM endemic spp native SC+S Chile, S Argentina, inc 5 narrow endemics of S Argentina (3), SC+S Chile (1), Patagonia (1); Philibertia ?? of 41 spp W+S SAM endemic spp native C Chile, S Argentina; Tweedia 2 of 6 spp SAM endemic native C Chile, S Argentina.
Additional Information and References
Visit Lyrae’s Dictionary of Botanical Terms to learn the terminology of botanists. Note that if you hover over most of the words in the articles, you can also get definitions from them there.
Willis, Lyrae (Unpublished). Plant Families of North America. This is where all of the family descriptions come from. Below should be most of my references for this, as well as my own personal observations.
Canadensys: Acadia University, Université de Montréal Biodiversity Centre, University of Toronto Mississauga, University of British Columbia. http://data.canadensys.net/explorer (accessed 2020 – current)
Delta: Watson, L., and Dallwitz, M.J. (1992+). The Families of Flowering Plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval. Version: 2nd May 2020. delta-intkey.com. Accessed spring through fall of 2020.
Neotropikey: Milliken, W., Klitgård, B., & Baracat, A. eds. (2009+). Neotropikey: Interactive key and information resources for flowering plants of the Neotropics. www.kew.org/neotropikey.com (accessed 2020 – current).
POWO (2019). Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet: http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/
Stevens, P. F. (2001 onwards). Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 14, July 2017 [more or less continuously updated since]. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/
USDA, NRCS. 2020. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 2 June 2020). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC, USA; accessed throughout the fall of 2020.
One important consideration when learning to identify the Aristolochiaceae family is that the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (IV) recently combined two very small families into the Aristolochiaceae so it would not be paraphyletic. Since these new subfamilies are themselves very unique and different morphologically from the traditional Aristolochiaceae (which only included Asaroideae and Aristolochioideae), I am describing the subfamilies separately from the traditional Aristolochiaceae, which will be described in detail as one (differences between these two subfamilies can still be found in the taxonomy section below).
The Aristolochiaceae are a family with bizarre-looking flowers, and each genus has its own unique and often very bizarre morphology. Since I always believe the weirder the better, the first time I saw an Asarum and an Aristolochia, I was instantly in love with their unique beauty.
Common Botanical Description
If you’re new to plant morphology, this guide is a perfect beginner’s description to help you learn how to identify the Aristolochiaceae family, with no need to know any scientific jargon. Below is additional information on uses and morphology, as well as pictures to help identify family members and individual species found in North America. But for researchers or those wanting to learn a more in-depth version, check out the Scientific Botanical Description below the images in addition to genus-level distribution data.
Leaves and Stems: These are mostly woody vines, shrubs, or herbs with simple (never compound) leaves on stalks (petioles) that are usually arranged in a spiral pattern and are often heart-shaped (cordate). Most have aromatic leaves that may have gland dots. The Hydnoroideae are leafless parasitic herbs that live almost entirely below the soil.
Flowers: The flowers are unusual and highly characteristic of the family, known for their often S-shaped floral tubes. They are often large and showy and often emit strong foul odors. They also often have unique and specialized hairs designed to trap flies. They are held there until the hairs wither, releasing them to escape and pollinate other flowers.
Reproductive Features: The bisexual flowers contain both male (stamens) and female (ovary, stigma, style) parts. There are typically 6-36 stamens, which are often fused to the female parts into a specialized central column called a gynostegium.
Fruits: Fruits are mostly dry capsules that split open when ripe to release their seeds. Rarely, they may be a fleshy berry or a nut.
Uses of the Aristolochiaceae Family
A few Aristolochia and Asarumspecies are routinely cultivated as ornamentals. Aristolochia and some Asarum contain a toxin known to be carcinogenic to humans and rats, so they are never ingested in any way. However, Pipevine Swallowtail butterflies are immune to the toxin and lay their eggs on Aristolochiaspp, and their caterpillars eat the leaves when they hatch. The fruits of Hydnora, on the other hand, have edible, fragrant pulp, which attracts animals, including porcupines, monkeys, jackals, rhinoceros, and armadillos, and are sometimes eaten by humans.
Morphology of Aristolochiaceae in North America
Species of Aristolochiaceae I have Covered So Far
Aristolochioideae Subfamily
Aristolochia taliscana – Mexican Birthwort
This is a lush medium green vine with heart-shaped (cordate) leaves with a deep cleft and a rounded to notched tip. Flowers are solitary in leaf axils with an S-shaped petal-like calyx in burgundy, purple, or brown, usually with yellow markings. The limb is covered with conspicuous purple hairs that trap pollinating insects. Native to western Mexico.
Aristolochia watsonii – Watson’s Dutchman’s Pipe
This one has very deeply arrow-shaped (sagittate) green leaves with purple markings. The calyx tube is straight or S-shaped, and the limb has maroon spots and no elaborate hairs. It is native to the southwestern USA and northwestern Mexico.
Asaroideae Subfamily
Note that the genus Hexastylis was recently combined with Asarum based on phylogenetic research, though not all sources have accepted this change. Since it is still not widely accepted, and their floral morphology is different, I have kept it separate for now.
Asarum caudatum – Western Wild Ginger
This has classic cordate leaves with very long petioles from the ground up. Flowers are solitary and burgundy or greenish-yellow, with a 3-part calyx with very long acute lobes tapering to a fine point. Native to the Pacific Northwest from BC, Canada, south to California, and east to Idaho and Montana, USA.
Hexastylis arifolia Little Brown Jug
This low herbaceous perennial has triangular-sagittate, ovate–sagittate, somewhat cordate, or deltoid leaves that are often variegated (this one shows slight variegation). Flowers are urceolate (jug-shaped) and brown, purple, or reddish with three lobes that may or may not be flared (visible at the base of the leaf stalk). Native to the southeastern USA.
Hexastylis shuttleworthii – Shuttleworth Ginger
This one has orbicular to cordate & usually variegated leaves. Its flowers are similar to H. arifolia but much larger. It’s a narrow endemic of the southern Appalachians & the surrounding area, eastern USA.
Scientific Botanical Description
Flowers of Aristolochiaceae
Flowers of Traditional Aristolochiaceae
Plants are hermaphrodites. Pollination is entomophilous by Diptera, and the mechanism is conspicuously specialized via an elaborate system for trapping flies within the perianth tube using articulated hairs that end up withering to release the flies so they can visit another flower. Flowers can be solitary or aggregated in cymes, racemes, or spikes, and they are often axillary but sometimes terminal. Flowers are very unusual in shape and can be small, medium, or large. They are often malodorous and smelling of carrion or may be odorless. They are actinomorphic to zygomorphic and tricyclic to pentacyclic. The perianth has 3 or 6 parts that are joined in one whorl or two (then isomerous), and they either have a distinct calyx and corolla or are petaline. Only in Saruma is the corolla whorl conspicuous and well developed. The calyx has three parts in one whorl: connate, entire or blunt-lobed, and campanulate or tubular, with the tube often S-shaped. The calyx is unequal but not bilabiate, bilabiate, or regular, persistent or not, and valvate or valvate–induplicate. Corolla, when present, has three parts in one whorl but otherwise is usually reduced or absent.
Flowers of Hydnoroideae
Plants are hermaphrodites, and pollination is via beetles. Flowers are solitary and arise endogenously from the pilot roots on short stalks that barely emerge above the ground, often with the lower parts remaining beneath the soil. They are medium to large in size, malodorous, regular, and either tricyclic or tetracyclic. A short free hypanthium is present. The perianth is sepaline, petaline, or of tepals. It has 3–4(5) parts joined in one whorl. The lobes are valvate, fleshy, often bare retrorse bristles, and are white, red, pink, or brown in color.
Flowers of Lactoridoideae
Plants are polygamodioecious with axillary flowers that are solitary or aggregated in cymes. Flowers are small, 3-merous, and tetracyclic. There is no free hypanthium or hypogynous disk. The perianth has three parts in one whorl and is sepaline.
Androecium of Aristolochiaceae
Androecium of Traditional Aristolochiaceae
The androecium has 6–36 members in one or two whorls that are free of the perianth but may be free of or united with the gynoecium or coherent via the gynostemium and one adelphous. Often, there are six stamens but there may also be 4 or 12(13–36), and they are all exclusively fertile. Stamens are isomerous with the perianth to polystemonous and are either filantherous or have sessile anthers. Anthers are cohering or separate from one another, basifixed or adnate, non-versatile, and dehiscing via longitudinal slits. They are extrorse or both extrorse and introrse only in Heterotropa. Anthers are tetrasporangiate and appendaged apically with the expanded connective that assumes stigmatic functions associated with the gynostemium, or they are unappendaged.
Androecium of Hydnoroideae
The androecium has 3–4(5) or 6–8(9–10) members that are free of the perianth but inserted on the hypanthium. They are one whorled, coherent, and united into a thick sinuose annular in Hydnora or an ovoid synandrium. The androecium is either made exclusively of fertile stamens or, in Prosopanche, includes staminodes. In Prosopanche 3–4(5), small fleshy staminodes alternate with the stamens. There are 3–4(5) stamens that are oppositisepalous and isomerous with the perianth. They either have sessile anthers in Hydnora or are filantherous in Prosopanche, where the very short filaments arise from the hypanthium, and the anthers are connate to form a dome or cap with a small central opening. Anthers may be separate from one another or coherent in Prosopanche. They are dehiscing via longitudinal slits or transversely, are extrorse, and many locular where each one has numerous pollen sacs.
Androecium of Lactoridoideae
There are six androecial members that are free of the perianth and one another and are two-whorled. The androecium is either exclusively all fertile stamens or sometimes includes staminodes. When present, three non-petaloid staminodes are internal to the fertile stamens. There are 6(3) stamens that are diplostemonous, narrowly laminar, and short. Anthers are adnate, non-versatile, and dehiscing via longitudinal slits. They are extrorse, bilocular, and almost as long as the blade. Anthers are tetrasporangiate and shortly appendaged apically.
Gynoecium of Aristolochiaceae
Gynoecium of Traditional Aristolochiaceae
The gynoecium has 4–6 carpels, and the pistil has 1 or 4–6 cells. It is synstylovarious, syncarpous, or in Hexastylis, it is synovarious. The gynoecium is usually inferior but sometimes may be partly inferior. The ovary is either 4–6 or 1 locular (where the septa sometimes incompletely intruded). An epigynous disk is either present or absent. There are 1 or 4–6 free or partially joined styles that are apical. Placentation when unilocular is parietal, and when plurilocular it is axile. There are 50-100 ovules in a single cavity if unilocular and 20-50 when plurilocular. Ovules possess a funicle, are pendulous or horizontal, and are anatropous.
Gynoecium of Hydnoroideae
The gynoecium is 3(4) carpelled and is either partly or completely buried in the soil. The pistil is one-celled. The gynoecium is synstylovarious to syncarpous and inferior. The ovary is one locular but becomes occluded by the ingrowth of the accrescent placentas. There are 1 or 3 sessile and commissural (Prosopanche) stigmas that are mostly 3-lobed in Hydnora. Placentation is parietal (Prosopanche) or apical (Hydnora). There are 50-200 undifferentiated ovules in the single cavity that are orthotropous and tenuinucellate.
Gynoecium of Lactoridoideae
The gynoecium is three-carpelled and isomerous with the perianth. The pistil is basally three-celled. It is superior and semicarpous with the carpels in a single whorl and more or less basally connate. The carpel is shortly stylate with a decurrent stigma and 6 (4–8) ovules. Placentation is marginal, and the placenta is intruded. The ovary is three locular basally. Ovules have long funicles, are biseriate, anatropous, bitegmic, and weakly crassinucellate.
Fruit of Aristolochiaceae
Fruit of Traditional Aristolochiaceae
The fruit is usually non-fleshy, but sometimes it has a fleshy endocarp. Usually, they are dehiscent septicidal, valvular (usually basally but only rarely at the top), or an irregularly splitting capsule. Rarely are they an indehiscent berry or a nut, or in Saruma, they are a schizocarp with 4-6 mericarps of follicles. Seeds are endospermic, ruminate or not, and are oily. The embryo is rudimentary to weakly differentiated at the time of seed release.
Fruit of Hydnoroideae
The fruit is fleshy inside but with a more or less woody pericarp. It is a dehiscent circumscissile capsule (Prosopanche) or an indehiscent capsule or berry. Fruits contain 500–2000 tiny seeds that are endospermic.
Fruit of Lactoridoideae
The fruit is a non-fleshy aggregate with the fruiting carpels coalescing into a secondary syncarp, a dehiscent follicle. Seeds are endospermic and oily.
Habit & Leaf Form of Aristolochiaceae
Habit & Leaf Form of Traditional Aristolochiaceae
Shrubs, lianas, or herbs, but mostly woody vines bearing essential oils. Plants are green and photosynthesize. They are always perennial and do not have a conspicuous aggregation of leaves. They are usually climbing stem twiners, but sometimes they are self-supporting. Plants are mesophytic. Leaves are alternate, spiral, flat, and either herbaceous or herbaceous and membranous. They are petiolate, sheathing to non-sheathing, simple, aromatic, and may be gland-dotted, pellucid, or punctate. Lamina is usually entire or sometimes dissected, palmatifid, or trilobed and is often cordate. They are either palmately or pinnately veined and are cross-venulate. Leaves are exstipulate, but sometimes the first 1–2 leaves of suppressed axillary branches simulate stipules.
Habit & Leaf Form of Hydnoroideae
Ectoparasitic herbs with a very peculiar vegetative form that lacks leaves and is more or less fungoid in habit. The vegetative component consists of a coarse, rhizome-like pilot root with many slender, unbranched haustorial roots that parasitize the roots of host plants. Plants are succulent and not green.
Habit & Leaf Form of Lactoridoideae
Shrubs bearing essential oils with small, simple, alternate, distichous, petiolate, and gland-dotted leaves. The lamina is entire, obovate, emarginate, and pinnately veined.
Taxonomy of Aristolochiaceae
The Aristolochiaceae family has 682 species in 7-9 genera of the Piperales order in the Magnoliids clade of basal angiosperms. This clade is not part of either the monocots or the dicots, which is why it is considered a basal angiosperm since it diverged early on.
APG IV has combined the former Hydnoraceae and Lactoridaceae because their exclusion would make the Aristolochiaceae paraphyletic.
Aristolochioideae – Plants are mostly lianas or occasionally shrubs or herbs. Inflorescences are usually axillary, and the flowers or at least the floral buds, are zygomorphic. The gynoecium has 4-6(2-3) carpels that are constricted apically. Stigmas are wet or dry and are commissural in Aristolochia. Fruits are dehiscent and open laterally, acropetally or basipetally septicidal, or rarely adaxially if a schizocarp or berry. Seeds are winged.
Asaroideae – Plants are rhizomatous perennial herbs. Flowers are solitary and terminal, the gynoecium is inferior to half inferior, and the stigma has multicellular papillae. The fruit of the Asarum is an irregularly dehiscent capsule and a follicular schizocarp in Saruma.
Hydnoroideae – Unusual parasitic herbs that resemble fungi and lack leaves entirely, living mostly underground with only fleshy, foul-smelling flowers emerging above the soil.
Lactoris or Lactoridoideae – a monospecific subfamily with a narrow endemic shrub with very small flowers and dry fruits that split into pod-like segments.
The unique flowers of most members of the Aristolochiaceae make them hard to confuse with other families. The subfamilies Aristolochioideae and Asaroideae are so unique they are rarely confused, and the Lactoroideae is a rare microendemic from Juan Fernández Island. The Hydnoroideae, on the other hand, despite their uniqueness, do have some superficially similar-looking families. However, the other families all contain features lacking in Hydnoraceae. They include the Apodanthaceae with its very small unisexual flowers; the Balanophoraceae with its fungus-like inflorescence with numerous small flowers; the Cytinaceae with its spicate inflorescence; the Mitrastemonaceae with its whorl of opposite decussate leaves and a superior ovary; and the Orobanchaceae with its zygomorphic flowers on racemes or spikes.
Distribution of Aristolochiaceae
The Aristolochiaceae family is widespread in warm temperate to tropical areas around the world except in Australasia, and they are not present in arctic areas. The Lactoridoideae is a rare microendemic genus confined to Juan Fernández Island off the coast of Chile.
Distribution of Aristolochiaceae in the Americas
Canadian Genera Include:
Aristolochioideae:Aristolochia 1 of 525 cosmopolitan spp native ON, intro QC; Isotrema 1 sp intro ON. Asaroideae:Asarum 2 of 126 N temperate spp native BC, MB, ON, QB, NB.
USA Genera Include:
Aristolochioideae: Aristolochia 16 of 525 cosmopolitan spp intro and native to most of the USA exc WA, OR, NV, UT, ID, MT, WY, CO, ND, SD, NE, MN, VT. Asaroideae:Asarum (inc Hexastylis) 17 of 126 N temperate spp native in most of the USA exc NV, AZ, UT, WY, CO, NM, NE, TX.
Mexico Genera Include:
Aristolochioideae:Aristolochia 47 of 525 cosmopolitan spp native throughout all of Mexico inc Mexican Pacific Is. Asaroideae: Asarum (inc Hexastylis) 1 of 126 N temperate spp native Yuc.
Neotropical Genera Include:
Aristolochioideae: Aristolochia ~200 of 525 cosmopolitan spp native throughout Mexico, CAM, Bermuda, Bahamas, Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Leeward & Windward Is, tropical SAM S to Santiago C Chile, N Argentina, intro Venezuelan Antilles, Galapagos, inc 15 spp formerly known as Isotrema native in CAM and Euglypha a former monospecific genus endemic to Bolivia, C+SE Brazil, Paraguay, NE Argentina. Hydnoroideae: Prosopanche 4 of 4 CAM + SAM endemic spp native Costa Rica, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, Paraguay, NE+S Brazil inc 2 narrow endemics of Costa Rica (1), Bahia Brazil (1). Lactoridoideae:Lactoris 1 sp endemic of Juan Fernandez Island off the coast of Chile.
Patagonia Genera Include:
Hydnoroideae: Prosopanche 1 of 4 CAM + SAM endemic spp native S Argentina.
Additional Information and References
Visit Lyrae’s Dictionary of Botanical Terms to learn the terminology of botanists. Note that if you hover over most of the words in the articles, you can also get definitions from them there.
Willis, Lyrae (Unpublished). Plant Families of North America. This is where all of the family descriptions come from. Below should be most of my references for this, as well as my own personal observations.
Canadensys: Acadia University, Université de Montréal Biodiversity Centre, University of Toronto Mississauga, University of British Columbia. http://data.canadensys.net/explorer (accessed 2020 – current)
Flora of North America. (1993+). https://floranorthamerica.org/Main_Page
Delta: Watson, L., and Dallwitz, M.J. (1992+). The Families of Flowering Plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval. Version: 2nd May 2020. delta-intkey.com. Accessed spring through fall of 2020.
Neotropikey: Milliken, W., Klitgård, B., & Baracat, A. eds. (2009 onwards). Neotropikey: Interactive key and information resources for flowering plants of the Neotropics. www.kew.org/neotropikey.com (accessed 2020 – current).
POWO (2019). Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet: http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/
USDA, NRCS. 2020. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 2 June 2020). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC, USA; accessed throughout fall of 2020.
The Amaranthaceae family is part of the Caryophyllales order of core eudicots (dicots). When you learn to identify the Amaranthaceae family, you will see it is made of mostly herbs or shrubs. Many are often found growing in disturbed habitats, and many of them are introduced weeds, sometimes considered noxious. However, many edible plants come from the Amaranthaceae, including commercially important ones. Apart from being weedy, the family is known for having flowers that are very small and often hidden by more conspicuous bracts.
Common Botanical Description
If you’re new to plant morphology, this guide is a perfect beginner’s description to teach you how to identify the Amaranthaceae family, with no need to know any scientific jargon. Below is additional information on uses and morphology, as well as pictures to help identify family members and individual species found in North America. But for researchers or those wanting to learn a more in-depth version, check out the Scientific Botanical Description below the images in addition to genus-level distribution data.
Leaves and Stemsof the Amaranthaceae: Most members are annual or perennial herbs or shrubs, sometimes described as sub-shrubs due to their somewhat woody nature; rarely are they vines or small trees. Stems often have thickened joints (nodes) and may become fleshy (succulent) in some species (especially Chenopodioideae). Leaves vary in size from tiny scales to large, well-developed leaves but are also occasionally absent in some species. Leaves are usually simple (not compound) and may be in opposite pairs or alternately arranged along the stem.
Flowersof the Amaranthaceae: Flowers are usually very small to minute and grow in spikes, heads, tight clusters, or branched groups. They are most often accompanied by conspicuous papery leaf-like structures (bracts) that stay on the plant for a long time. Rather than petals, most flowers are made of thin and papery parts that look more like scales or sometimes sepals, and they sometimes remain attached to the fruits as they grow, developing into wings, spines, or bumps to help protect or distribute them.
Reproductive Featuresof the Amaranthaceae: These are very diverse in the family, ranging from flowers with both male and female parts (bisexual or hermaphroditic) to separate male and female flowers on separate plants (dioecious). And since the flowers are tiny, these features are seldom easily visible for quick identification, so we’ll skip it here. But you can check out the scientific botanical description below for more information.
Fruitsof the Amaranthaceae: Fruits may be dry, bladder-like fruits or capsules that may split open from the top, but sometimes they can be small, fleshy berries or drupes. In some species, the fruit stays enclosed in and is dispersed with the flower parts. The seeds are known for containing starch, which helps the plants grow and has made them useful as a human food source.
Uses of Amaranthaceae
The Amaranthaceae family has a few cultivated ornamentals that are from Amaranthus, Gomphrena, and Iresine, and some noxious weeds are notable from Amaranthus, Iresine, and Acnida. Amaranthus species are also used as food in many parts of the world. In North America, Native American peoples used to cultivate it for both the greens, eaten as a vegetable, and the seeds, which were often ground into flour. Amaranth seeds and flour are gaining renewed interest as they make a suitable replacement for wheat for those with grain allergies and gluten intolerance. Other commercially grown species include the sugar beet and Swiss chard from Beta vulgaris and spinach (Spinacia oleracea).
Morphology of Amaranthaceae in North America
Some Amaranthaceae Species Of North America
Amaranthoideae Subfamily
Achyranthes aspera—Chaff Flower
This is a tall herb, up to 2 m tall, with pilose to puberulent stems and variable leaves that are often roughly obovate, suborbicular, etc. Sessile flowers are in a long spike surrounded by persistent awned bracts and bracteoles. Pantropical herbs were introduced to the southern USA and Mexico.
Amaranthus arenicola—Sand Amaranth
This dioecious annual (male and female flowers on separate plants) is common in sandy habitats, hence its common name. It has simple leaves and grows 2 m tall. Flowers occur in congested clusters (as shown in the photo). Native to the central and south Great Plains of the United States.
Amaranthus palmeri—Palmer’s Amaranth
Is a fast-growing, aggressive herb that grows to 1.5 m (rarely to 3 m) tall with diamond-shaped leaves with long petioles. Flowers are in terminal spikes or drooping panicles which are fairly common in the Amaranthaceae. Native to southern North America but now widely introduced and considered one of the most noxious weeds in the world. Interestingly, it is also edible and nutritious and can be used as a food crop in marginal environments.
Amaranthus retroflexus—Red Root Amaranth
It is a tall herb, growing to 3 m tall; is pubescent and hairy; and has rhombic or ovate leaves with long petioles. Flowers are in terminal and axillary spikes or panicles. It is believed to be native to eastern and central North America.
Camphorosmoideae Subfamily
Bassia scoparia—Summer Cypress
It is an annual herb up to 1.5 m tall, with linear–lanceolate leaves that often curl and a stem that is often red. Inconspicuous flowers in leaf axils with 0.5-1 cm long bracts. This Amaranthaceae is a highly invasive Eurasian introduced species.
Chenopodioideae Subfamily
Atriplex canescens—Four-Wing Saltbush
It has more or less sessile, somewhat oblong leaves and tiny flowers in congested spikes. Conspicuous winged greenish bracteoles expand in fruit and turn papery and beige when mature, becoming wings. There are few spines on their branches. This common and under-appreciated Amaranthaceae member is Native to west & midwestern USA
Atriplex confertifolia—Spiny Saltbrush
This one is similar to A. canescens but with shorter, wider leaves, unwinged fruits, and many more spines on its branches. Native to dry areas of the western USA, especially in the Great Basin region.
Chenopodiastrum simplex—Giant-Seeded Goosefoot
This herb has larger leaves than most of the family; they are 3–10 cm long and more than half as wide, with irregular, large pointy teeth, lobes, or lobules (of varying depths), mostly hairless stems and leaves, and small apetalous flowers. Native to much of North America.
Chenopodium album—White Goosefoot
This is a very common erect annual with striations on its stems in green or reddish-purple; leaves are rhombic–ovate to broadly lanceolate. Flowers are in compact cymes in terminal or lateral spikes. Introduced from Eurasia, widespread in North America.
Krascheninnikovia lanata—Winterfat
This is a small shrub with flat lanceolate leaves. Leaves and stems are both white and woolly, turning reddish. Fruits (utricles) are densely woolly and visible all winter, giving it its common name of “winterfat.” The silky hairs help them disperse in the wind. Endemic to western North America from Canada south to northern Mexico.
Gomphrenoideae Subfamily
Froelichia floridana—Large Cottonweed or Plains Snakecotton
A small annual with a single erect or ascending stem and leaves on the bottom 1/3 of the plant that are lanceolate to linear & sericeous tomentose. Flowers are in 5 rank pubescent spikes, and utricles are flask-shaped. Native to the central and eastern USA and northern Mexico.
Gomphrena serrata—Prostrate Globe Amaranth
An erect to prostrate perennial or annual, with a pilose stem and obovate to oblong pilose leaves that are sessile to petiolate. Flowers in a head covered by white lanceolate bracteoles. Native to the southeastern USA, south to the tropical Americas.
Iresine diffusa—Juba’s Bush
This is a branched erect to clambering annual to perennial with ovate–lanceolate leaves that are 3 – 14 cm long and glabrous to villous. Flowers are in villous open panicles (males) or compact panicles (females). Native to South America, introduced into North America.
Salsoideae Subfamily
Halogeton glomeratus—Salt Lover
This highly branched halophytic annual has narrow fleshy blue-green leaves tipped with long spines. Flowers grow densely along the branches with large, conspicuous, waxy, winged bracts. Native to Central Asia, introduced in western North America.
Salsola tragus aka Kali Tragus—Tumbleweed
This is a low-growing annual with branched and tangled stems and firm, linear, subulate & usually very spine-tipped leaves. Flowers are surrounded by long spiny bracts and a disk of winged white/pink sepals. This Amaranthaceae is widely introduced in western North America and native to Russia. Our most common ‘tumbleweed’.
Scientific Botanical Description of the Amaranthaceae
Flowers of Amaranthaceae
Plants are usually hermaphroditic but otherwise monoecious, andromonoecious, gynomonoecious, dioecious, androdioecious, or polygamomonoecious (rarely). Flowers are solitary, paired (axillary), or aggregated in terminal or axillary cymes, spikes, heads (often with conspicuous persistent bracts and bracteoles), panicles, or thyrses, and they may or may not be pseudanthial. Flowers are small to minute in size; they are bracteate and bracteolate, regular, and tricyclic when hermaphrodite; otherwise, sometimes, they are cyclic or two-cyclic. Free hypanthium is usually absent except sometimes in the Chenopodioideae. The hypogynous disk is absent except in Chenopodioideae, where it is usually present. The perianth is dry and scarious, sepaloid or petaloid, or may be vestigial or absent (sometimes in Chenopodioideae). When present, there are 3–5 (1–6) parts to the perianth. The perianth is typically interpreted as a calyx with 3–5 (1–6) parts that may be free, partially connate, or connate (almost always in Chenopodioideae). The calyx is regular, imbricate, usually non-fleshy except in Chenopodioideae, persistent in fruit, and may or may not be accrescent, enclosing the fruit with wings, tubercles, or spines.
Androecium of Amaranthaceae
The androecium has 2-5 (1–10) members that are either free of the perianth or adnate to the perianth or disk. All members are usually unequal except in the Chenopodioideae and some Ptilotus, where they are all equal. They are always in one whorl and are usually basally coherent, 1 adelphous, with filaments usually connate all or part of their length into a membranous tube, or in Chenopodioideae, they are often free of one another. The androecium can be made of exclusively fertile stamens (sometimes, or usually, in Chenopodioideae) or may often include staminodes, with some members lacking anthers or with petaloid or pseudostaminodial scales alternating with the true androecial members. When present, there are 1–3 or 5 staminodes in the same series as fertile stamens, and they may or may not be petaloid. There are 3-5(1) stamens that are oppositisepalous and usually isomerous with the perianth. Anthers dehiscing via longitudinal slits, and they are introrse, unilocular to bilocular, and either bisporangiate or tetrasporangiate.
Gynoecium of Amaranthaceae
The gynoecium is 2–3(4–5) carpelled, often 5 carpelled in Chenopodioideae, and the pistil is 1-celled. The gynoecium is synovarious, synstylovarious, or syncarpous, and it is usually superior but can sometimes be partly inferior. The ovary is 1-locular and sessile to stipitate. The gynoecium may be non-stylate or stylate. When present, there are 1-3 (2-4) styles that may be partially joined. There are 1-3 stigmas (1-3) that are of the dry type, papillate, and Group II type. Placentation is always basal. There are 1-2 or 5 ovules in the single cavity, and they are ascending or pendulous, non-arillate, campylotropous, bitegmic, and crassinucellate.
Fruit of Amaranthaceae
The fruit may be fleshy or non-fleshy. It may be a dehiscent irregular or often circumscissile capsule, or it may be an indehiscent berry, drupe, nut, capsule, or often a utricle. Sometimes in the Chenopodioideae, the fruit may be enclosed in the fleshy hypanthium or perianth, and sometimes, the gynoecia also combine to form a multiple fruit. Seeds are non-endospermic and contain starch. Perisperm is present (abundant, mealy) or sometimes absent in Chenopodioideae. Seeds have starch.
Habit & Leaf Form of Amaranthaceae
Most are annual or perennial (sometimes biennial) herbs or subshrubs, some shrubs, and a few vines and small trees. Sometimes they are succulent and nearly always halophytic in the Chenopodioideae, where they can even be more or less cactoid with succulent photosynthetic stems (Salicornia). Many species have thickened nodes on their stems. The wood of the perennial stem has a typical anomalous secondary growth, and only the subfamily Polycnemoideae has normal secondary growth. Plants are green and photosynthesizing. Leaves may be well-developed, much reduced, or absent, and they may be minute to large in size. Usually without a basal aggregation of leaves except sometimes in Ptilotus and the Chenopodioideae. The leaves are arranged alternate or opposite, and they are usually herbaceous but can also be fleshy or membranous. They are simple and may be petiolate or sessile, exstipulate, epulvinate, connate or not, sheathing or not, and flat or terete. Leaves can be extremely variable in shape, with mostly entire or occasionally toothed margins. The lamina is entire and is either one-veined or pinnately veined. A variety of hair shapes and features are often present. Domatia are common.
Taxonomy of Amaranthaceae
There are currently about 2000 – 2500 species in 180 accepted genera of the Caryophyllales order of core eudicots. There are currently 10 subfamilies. However, as with all families, current advances in molecular phylogenetics are causing us to re-evaluate family relationships, so this may change in the future as more information is discovered.
Amaranthoideae – Annual or perennial herbs to shrubs, occasionally small trees. The inflorescence is branched or not but is usually spike-like or capitate. The bracts are disarticulating, and bracteoles may or may not be papyraceous or scarious. The perianth is typically scarious, and it possesses staminodes or pseudostaminodes. Cuticle waxes lack platelets, and hairs are uniseriate.
Betoideae – Annual to perennial herbs or occasionally subshrubs or vines. Bracteoles are usually present; the perianth has 5 (3) parts and is persistent and accrescent in Beta. The androecium has 5 (1) members, and the gynoecium is sometimes partly inferior. The fruit is a circumscissile capsule or pyxidium.
Camphorosmoideae – Often shrubby plants but sometimes annual herbs, often with C4 photosynthesis; leaves are terete, and ‘prickles’ are often present. Their hairs have swollen bases, styles are filiform with papillae all around. The perianth is fleshy and spiny.
Chenopodioideae – Annual herbs or short-lived perennial herbs to shrubs that are more or less succulent and often have swollen nodes. They prefer dry and/or saline temperate to subtropical habitats. Flowers are small and have a greenish perianth that often becomes more elaborate after flowering and is accrescent with the usually indehiscent fruits.
Corispermoideae – Annual herbs without C4 photosynthesis. The inflorescence is spicate, simple, compact, or sometimes globular, and lacking bracteoles. Leaves are mostly alternate, sessile, or petiole-like. Hairs are branched or stellate. Perianth has 0-5 membranous tepals that are not persistent.
Gomphrenoideae – Annual to perennial herbs or subshrubs with a perianth that is free to connate. Anthers are bisporangiate, monothecal, and their filaments are more or less connate. Their stigma is either capitate or bilobed.
Polycnemoideae – Annual to perennial herbs or small shrubs that often inhabit saline habitats. Leaves are needle-like or succulent, bracts are disarticulating, and bracteoles are large. Flowers are axillary, the perianth is petaloid but never modified, and the androecium is basally connate. This subfamily is distinguishable from all other members of Amaranthaceae by normal secondary growth.
Salicornioideae – Annual or perennial herbs to low shrubs, usually with articulated stems. Plants are glabrous, and leaves are usually opposite, more or less terete or scaly or reduced to a rim. The inflorescence is dense, spicate, and leafless. The perianth has 3-4 (2-5) parts and is typically at least partially connate. In fruiting, the perianth may remain membranous or become spongy, crustaceous, or horny.
Salsoideae – Herbs, subshrubs, shrubs, or sometimes trees. Stems and leaves are often succulent, leaves are terete, and bracteoles are present. Scarious wings usually develop from the perianth in fruit. Anthers have colored appendages, and their stigmas are flattened.
Suaedoideae – Annual to perennial herbs to shrubs that are usually glabrous and usually have well-developed terete leaves. The inflorescence is spicate axillary cymes that are loose, leafy, and possess bracteoles. Styles are filiform; stigma may be capitate but is papillate all around. The perianth is persistent and usually accrescent and enlarged or winged when in fruit.
Amaranthaceae differs from the similar but very small (only two genera) Achatocarpaceae family because Amaranthaceae usually have a herbaceous habit vs. always being woody and always with normal secondary growth in Achatocarpaceae. Amaranthaceae also usually have dry fruits rather than the succulent berries found in the Achatocarpaceae.
Distribution of Amaranthaceae
The Amaranthaceae family is a temperate to tropical, truly cosmopolitan family missing only from Antarctica and the most extreme Arctic areas. Widespread throughout North America, Central America, the Caribbean, and South America.
Distribution of Amaranthaceae in the Americas
Canadian Amaranthaceae Genera Include:
Amaranthoideae:Achyranthes 1 of 14 Old World Tropics spp intro ON;Amaranthus 20 of 91 cosmopolitan spp intro BC, NT, NB, NS, PE, NL Island, native AB, SK, MB, ON, QC. Camphorosmoideae: Bassia 2 of 22 Old World & USA spp intro to all S provinces exc NL, NS, PE. Chenopodioideae:Atriplex 18 of 245 cosmopolitan spp native all of Canada (inc GL) but exc NU?;Axyris 1 of 7 Asian spp intro all of S Canada exc PE, NL; Blitum 4 of 10 mostly N temperate spp inc 2 spp native and 2 spp intro in all of Canada inc Arctic but ephemeral PE, NL (exc Labrador); Chenopodiastrum 4 of 8 N temperate & subtropical spp inc 1 sp native all S provinces exc NL, and 3 spp intro S Canada and YT, NT, absent NU;Chenopodium 19 of 129 cosmopolitan spp native YT, NT, BC, AB, SK, MB, ON, QC, NS, intro in NB, PE, NL, NU (and GL); Cycloloma monospecific former C NAM endemic sp native SK, MB, ON, intro QC, Argentina, Europe; Dysphania 3 of 43 subcosmopolitan spp intro BC, ON, QC, NB, NS; Krascheninnikovia 1 of 2 N temperate spp native YT, AB, SK, MB;Lipandra monospecific Eurasian sp intro BC, SK, MB, ON, QC, NB;Oxybasis 6 of 13 subcosmopolitan spp inc 3 spp native all of Canada inc Arctic exc PE, NL, and 3 spp intro E Canada; Spinacia 1 of 3 WC Asian spp ephemeral YT, NT, AB, MB, plus cultivated Spinacia;Stutzia 1 of 2 NW NAM endemic spp native AB, SK; Suckleya monospecific N-C NAM endemic sp native to AB, SK. Corispermoideae: Corispermum 6 of 68 temperate & subtropical N hemisphere spp intro QC, native BC, AB, SK, MB, ON, QC, YT, NT. Gomphrenoideae: Froelichia 1 of 15 former Americas endemic spp intro ON. Polycnemoideae: Polycnemum 3 of 6 Europe + C Asia spp intro BC, ON. Salicornioideae: Salicornia 5 of 52 cosmopolitan spp native to all of Canada exc Labrador, in coastal and inland saline areas. Salsoideae: Salsola (inc Kali)3 of 64 mostly Eurasian spp intro all S provinces. Suaedoideae: Suaeda 4 of 91 cosmopolitan spp native all of Canada exc Labrador.
USA AmaranthaceaeGenera Include:
Amaranthoideae:Achyranthes 4 of 14 Old World Tropics spp intro TX, LA, FL, AL, KY, WV, IN, OH, MD, native and intro HI, inc 2 spp endemic to HI; Aerva 1 of 6 mostly Old World Tropics spp native and believed extinct in HI; Amaranthus 45 of 91 cosmopolitan spp intro and native in all USA inc HI, intro AK; Celosia 4 of 46 almost pantropical spp inc 1?? native TX, FL and 3 spp intro most of E USA from WI S to MS and all E exc MI, GA, SC, RI, MA, NH, ME and inc MO, LA, KS, UT; Charpentiera 5 of 6 Pacific Islands spp endemic to HI; Digera monospecific Old World Tropics sp intro NJ; Hermbstaedtia 1 of 14 African spp sp intro MD;Nototrichium monospecific endemic HI. Betoideae: Aphanisma monospecific SW NAM endemic sp native CA; Beta 2 of 10 Eurasian spp intro MT, OR, CA, UT, TX, MO, AL, SC, NC, VA, WV, PA, MI, NY, CT, MA, RI, NH, ME. Camphorosmoideae: Bassia 6 of 22 Old World & USA spp inc 2 spp native and 4 spp intro most USA exc AR, GA, FL, native TX, intro HI; Enchylaena 1 of 2 Australian spp intro CA; Neokochia 2 of 2 W USA endemic spp of OR, CA, ID, NV, MT, WY, CO, UT, AZ, NM, TX; Spirobassia monospecific Eurasian spp intro PA, NJ, MD, NY, CT. Chenopodioideae: Atriplex 94 of 245 cosmopolitan spp native and intro most USA inc AK, exc AR, TN and intro HI; Axyris 1 of 7 Asian spp intro MT, CO, ND, WI, MO;Blitum (inc Monolepis) 4 of 10 mostly N temperate spp inc 3 spp native and 1 sp intro most of USA exc AR S to LA and E to NC S to FL plus VA, MD, DE, inc 1 narrow endemic of CA + Baja California Mexico; Chenopodiastrum 2 of 8 N temperate & subtropical spp inc 1 sp native most of USA inc AK exc OR, AZ, AL, GA, SC, FL where intro and 1 sp intro scattered throughout USA; Chenopodium 41 of 129 cosmopolitan spp (may inc Oxybasis) native and intro all USA inc AK and HI; Cycloloma monospecific former C NAM endemic sp native most of USA exc WA, OR, GA, FL, VT, NH, ME, now intro Argentina, Europe;Dysphania 11 of 43 subcosmopolitan spp native and intro entire USA, intro AK, HI, mosty native in S USA, mostly intro N USA;Stutzia (inc Endolepis) 2 of 2 NW NAM endemic spp native CA, NV, MT, WY, CO, ND, SD, NE;Extriplex 2 of 2 SW NAM endemic spp native CA, inc 1 narrow endemic of CA, other sp also native Baja California Mexico;Grayia (inc Zuckia) 4 of 4 W USA endemic spp from MT S to NM and all W; Krascheninnikovia 1 of 2 N temperate spp native W USA from ND S to TX and all states W; Lipandra monospecific Eurasian sp intro OR, WI, IL, MI, PA, NJ, NY, CT, ME; Micromonolepis monospecific W USA endemic of WA, OR, CA, NV, UT, CO, WY;Neomonolepis monospecific former SW NAM endemic of CA, NV, OR, now intro Australia;Oxybasis 6 of 13 subcosmopolitan spp native inc 2-3 spp native in most of USA exc the SE states and 2-3 spp intro in all of USA inc FL, AL, IL, IN, KY, WV, VA,NC,VT; Proatriplex monospecific S-C USA endemic of UT, AZ, CO, NM; Spinacia 1 of 3 WC Asia sp intro WA, OR, CA, UT, TX, KS, SC, NC, VA, OH, PA, CT, MA, NY, NH, ME, plus cultivated Spinacia; Suckleya monospecific N-C NAM endemic sp native MT, ND, WY, CO, NM, AZ, NE, OK, TX; Teloxys monospecific Asian sp intro MI, NY and AK. Corispermoideae: Corispermum 9 of 68 temperate & subtropical N hemisphere spp native and intro most USA exc ME, VT, NH, PA, MD, DE, WV, VA, TN, NC, SC, LA, MS, AL, FL, native AK, extirpated or extinct CA. Gomphrenoideae: Alternanthera 11 of 113 mostly pantropical spp inc 1 sp native FL and the rest intro CA, AZ, NM, TX, OK, MO, AR, LA, IL, KY, TN, MS, AL, GA, SC, NC, VA, MD, PA, NJ, NY and HI; Blutaparon 1 of 4 Americas, Africa & Japan spp native TX, LA, FL; Froelichia 6 of 15 former Americas endemic spp native most USA exc WA, OR, ID, MT, NV, UT, ND, VT, RI, ME, inc 2 narrow endemics of TX, intro CA?, now intro Australia, Japan; Gomphrena 8 of 129 now pantropical spp native AZ, NM, TX, LA, FL, GA, VA, and intro PA, MD, OH, NY, MA and HI; Guilleminea (inc Gossypianthus)1 of 8 former Americas endemic spp native CA, AZ, NM, TX, OK, CO, SC, MD, AR, LA, genus now intro Africa, Australia; Iresine 6 of 34 former Americas endemic spp native AZ, NM, TX, KS, OK, MO, AR, LA, IL, IN, KY, TN, MS, AL, GA, FL, SC, NC, MD, PA, intro HI & pantropical; Tidestromia 5 of 6 NAM & Caribbean endemic spp native CA, NV, UT, AZ, CO, NM, TX, LA, OK, KS, SD, MO, IL, PA. Polycnemoideae: Nitrophila 2 of 4 Americas endemic spp native WA, OR, CA, NV, UT, AZ, inc 1 narrow endemic of Mohave desert of SE CA + SW NV, other 2 spp endemic C+S SAM; Polycnemum 1 of 6 Europe & C Asia spp intro IN, NY, MD, DE, NH. Salicornioideae: Allenrolfea 1 of 3 Americas endemic spp is a SW NAM endemic native to OR, ID, CA, NV, UT, AZ, NM, TX, other 2 spp endemic Argentina; Arthroceras monospecific SW NAM endemic sp native CA; Salicornia (inc Arthrocnemum) 5 of 52 cosmopolitan spp native most of USA inc AK but exc AZ, OK, AR, TN, KY, IN, WI, WV, PA, VT, intro in HI, MI, extirpated IL, found in coastal & inland saline areas. Salsoideae: Caroxylon 1 of 128 African & Eurasian spp intro CA; Halogeton 1 of 3 Mediterranean & W Asian spp intro in all W USA MT S to NM and all W, inc SD, NE; Salsola 6 of 64 mostly Eurasian spp intro all of USA inc HI; Soda 1 of 2 Mediterranean spp intro CA. Suaedoideae: Suaeda 13 of 91 cosmopolitan spp intro and native most of USA exc IA, AR, TN, WV, VT, native AK.
Mexico AmaranthaceaeGenera Include:
Amaranthoideae: Achyranthes 1 of 14 Old World Tropics spp intro all of Mexico; Amaranthus ?? of 91 cosmopolitan spp native through all of Mexico and intro to Mexican Pacific Is; Celosia ?? of 46 almost pantropical spp native most of Mexico exc Mex, Cd Mex, Tlx, Mor where it is intro; Chamissoa 1 of 3 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native in all of Mexico; Cyathula 1 of 28 pantropical spp native Nay, Jal, Col, Gro, Mch, Oax, Chp, Pue, Ver, Tab, Cam, QR, Yuc; Lagrezia 1 of 14 otherwise mostly Madagascar endemic spp endemic to Mexico in Nay, Jal, Col, Mch, Gro, Oax, Chp, Tab, Cam, Yuc, QR; Pleuropetalum 2 of 3 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native N+SE+SE Mexico, Ver. Betoideae: Aphanisma monospecific SW NAM endemic sp native BC, BCS?, Mexican Pacific Is; Beta 2 of 10 Eurasian spp intro BC, BCS, Son, Sin. Camphorosmoideae: Bassia ?? of 22 Old World & USA spp intro BC, BCS, Son?, Sin?. Chenopodioideae: Atriplex ?? of 245 cosmopolitan spp native through all of Mexico inc Mexican Pacific Is;Blitum 4 of 10 mostly N temperate spp inc 2 spp native and 2 spp intro N Mexico BCN, BCS, Son, Sin, Chi, NL, Tam, Dgo, Zac, SLP, Gto, Qro?, Hgo?, inc 1 narrow endemic of BC and California USA; Chenopodiastrum 1 of 8 N temperate & subtropical spp intro BC, BCS, Son, Sin, Nay, Jal, Col, Mch, Gro, Oax; Chenopodium ?? of 129 cosmopolitan spp native throughout all of Mexico; Cycloloma monospecific former C NAM endemic sp native Chi, Dgo, Zac, SLP, Hgo, Gto, Qro, NL, Tam, Coa, now intro Argentina, Europe;Dysphania ?? of 43 subcosmopolitan spp native all of Mexico, intro Mexican Pacific Is; Extriplex 2 of 2 SW NAM endemic spp native BCN, BCS?; Krascheninnikovia 1 of 2 mostly N temperate spp native N Mexico BC, BCS, Son, Sin, Chi, Coa, NL, Tam, Dgo, Zac, Qro, Ags, Gto, SLP; Neomonolepis monospecific former SW NAM endemic native BCN, BCS?, now intro Australia; Oxybasis 4 of 13 subcosmopolitan spp inc 2 spp native Chi, Coa, NL, Tam, Dgo, Zac, Ags, SLP, Gto, Qro, Hgo, Mex, Cd Mex, Mor, Nay, Jal, Col, Gro, Mch, Oax, and 2 spp intro BC, BCS, Son, Sin, inc 1 sp endemic to most of Mexico. Corispermoideae: Corispermum ?? of 68 temperate & subtropical N hemisphere spp native Chi, Dgo, Zac, SLP, Hgo, Gto, Qro, NL, Tam, Coa. Gomphrenoideae: Alternanthera ?? of 113 mostly pantropical spp native throughout all of Mexico; Blutaparon 1 of 4 Americas, Africa & Japan spp native most of Mexico exc C Mexico; Froelichia 6 of 15 former Americas endemic spp native in all of Mexico, inc 1 narrow endemic of BCS, the genus now intro Japan, Australia; Gomphrena ?? of 129 now pantropical spp native all of Mexico; Guilleminea 2 of 8 former Americas endemic spp native N+SW+C Mexico, now intro Australia, Africa; Hebanthe 1 of 6 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native Chi, Coa, NL, Tam, Dgo, Zac, Gto, SLP, Qro, Nay, Jal, Col, Gro, Mch, Oax, Ver, Tab, Cam, Yuc, QR;Iresine ?? of 34 former Americas endemic spp native all of Mexico; Pfaffia ?? of 33 Neo endemic spp native S Mexico in Nay, Jal, Col, Mch, Gro, Oax, Chp, Cam, Tab, QR, Yuc; Tidestromia 6 of 6 NAM & Caribbean endemic spp native N Mexico BC, BCS, Son, Sin, Chi, Coa, NL, Tam, Dgo, Gto, Qro, SLP, Hgo, Ags, inc 1 narrow endemic of Coa. Polycnemoideae: Nitrophila 1 of 4 Americas endemic spp native NW Mexico. Salicornioideae: Allenrolfea 1 of 3 Americas endemic spp is a SW NAM endemic native to BCN, BCS, Son, Sin, Chi, NL, Tam, Dgo, SLP, other 2 spp endemic Argentina; Arthroceras monospecific SW NAM endemic sp native BC, BCS, Son?, Sin?; Salicornia ?? of 52 cosmopolitan spp native most of Mexico exc Pue, coastal & inland saline areas. Salsoideae: Salsola ?? of 64 mostly Eurasian intro BC, BCS, Son, Sin, Chi, Coa, NL, Tam, Dgo, Zac, Gto, Qro, Ags. Suaedoideae: Suaeda ?? of 91 cosmopolitan spp native in all of Mexico inc Mexican Pacific Is.
Neotropical AmaranthaceaeGenera Include:
Amaranthoideae: Achyranthes 1 of 14 Old World Tropics spp intro CAM (exc Costa Rica), Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Aruba, Antilles (exc Cayman Is), SW Caribbean, Galapagos, tropical SAM S to Peru, Bolivia, C+SE Brazil (exc Ecuador); Amaranthus ?? of 91 cosmopolitan spp native throughout N Caribbean, Antilles, SW Caribbean, Trinidad-Tobago, CAM, all of SAM, Galapagos, intro Bermuda, Juan Fernandez Is; Celosia ?? of 46 almost pantropical spp native Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Bahamas, Leeward & Windward Is, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, N+E+S Brazil, intro Belize, Cayman Is, Galapagos, Trinidad-Tobago, C Brazil, Bolivia, NE Argentina, Paraguay; Chamissoa 3 of 3 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native Greater Antilles (exc Cayman Is), CAM S through tropical SAM to N Argentina exc French Guiana, N Chile, inc 2 spp endemic to SAM; Cyathula 3 of 28 pantropical spp inc 2 spp native CAM, Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, Trinidad-Tobago, Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and 1 sp intro Puerto Rico, Leeward & Windward Is, Venezuelan Antilles, French Guiana, Suriname, Guyana; Hebanthodes monospecific endemic of Peru;Herbstia monospecific E SAM endemic of E+S Brazil, Paraguay, NE Argentina; Lecosia 2 of 2 narrow endemic spp of E Brazil; Pleuropetalum 3 of 3 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native CAM, Venezuela, Colombia. Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Galapagos, inc 1 narrow endemic of Galapagos. Betoideae: Beta 2 of 10 Eurasian spp intro Honduras, Cuba, Cayman Is, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Ecuador, N+C Chile, Juan Fernández Is, Argentina, Uruguay. Camphorosmoideae: Bassia 1 of 22 Old World & USA spp intro C Chile, Argentina; Maireana 1 of 59 Australian spp intro N Chile, Desventurados Is; Chenopodioideae: Atriplex ?? of 245 cosmopolitan spp native Honduras, Bermuda, Antilles (exc Windward Is), SW Caribbean, Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Chile, Argentina, Uruguay S Brazil;Blitum 1 of 10 mostly N temperate spp intro Argentina; Chenopodiastrum 1 of 8 N temperate & subtropical spp intro Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Bermuda, Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Antilles (exc Cayman Is, Windward Is), Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, C+E Brazil, Chile, N Argentina, Uruguay; Chenopodium ?? of 129 cosmopolitan spp native Honduras, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Chile, Argentina, Paraguay, S Brazil, intro C+E Brazil, Bermuda, Bahamas, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Trinidad-Tobago; Cycloloma monospecific former C NAM endemic sp intro NE Argentina;Dysphania ?? of 43 subcosmopolitan spp native CAM (exc Costa Rica), Bermuda, all of SAM exc Ecuador, French Guiana, Suriname, Guyana where intro, also intro Bahamas, Antilles, SW Caribbean, Trinidad-Tobago, Galapagos, Juan Fernandez Is;Holmbergia monospecific C SAM endemic of Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, N Argentina; Oxybasis 5 of 13 subcosmopolitan spp inc 3 spp native Peru, Bolivia, Chile, NW+S Argentina and 2 spp intro Argentina, inc 2 narrow endemics of W + S Argentina (1), S Chile + S Argentina (1); Spinacia oleracea cultivated spinach, intro Hispaniola, Cayman Is. Gomphrenoideae: Alternanthera ?? of 113 mostly pantropical spp Bermuda, Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Aruba, Antilles, CAM and and all of SAM inc Galapagos exc S Chile; Blutaparon 3 of 4 Americas, Africa & Japan spp native Belize, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Bahamas, Antilles, Trinidad-Tobago, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname,French Guiana, N+E+S Brazil, NE Argentina, Uruguay, inc 1 sp endemic to SAM, 1 endemic and extinct sp of Galapagos; Froelichia 8 of 15 former Americas spp native to Americas Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil, Ecuador, Galapagos, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, N Argentina, inc 4 narrow endemics of Galapagos (2), Para N Brazil (1), Paraguay (1); Froelichiella monospecific endemic C Brazil; Gomphrena ?? of 129 now pantropical spp native CAM, most of SAM exc Suriname, French Guiana, S Chile, intro Greater Antilles, Trinidad-Tobago, Venezuelan Antilles; Guilleminea 4 of 8 former Americas endemic spp native Cuba, Hispaniola, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, C Brazil, Paraguay, N Argentina, Uruguay, inc 2 narrow endemics of Cuba (1), Uruguay (1); Hebanthe 6 of 6 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native CAM (exc El Salvador), tropical SAM S to N Argentina exc N Chile, Uruguay, Guyana, Suriname, inc 3 spp endemic to Brazil; Iresine 34 of 34 former Americas endemic spp native from S USA, Mexico, Bahamas, Antilles (exc Aruba, Netherlands Antilles), CAM S through tropical SAM to N Argentina (exc French Guiana, N Chile), 1 sp now intro pantropical; Lithophila 2 of 2 Neo endemic spp native Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Cayman Is., Cuba, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Lesser Antilles, Trinidad-Tobago, Galápagos, Suriname, Venezuela, inc 1 narrow endemic of Galapagos; Pedersenia 8 of 8 Neo endemic spp of Honduras S to Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Paraguay, N Brazil, plus Puerto Rico, Windward Is; Pfaffia 33 of 33 Neo endemic spp native from S Mexico, Haiti, Leeward & Windward Is, Venezuelan Antilles, Trinidad-Tobago, tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc N Chile); Pseudoplantago 2 of 2 SAM endemic spp endemic to Venezuela (1), S Brazil + NE Argentina (1); Quaternella 3 of 3 spp endemic to C+E+S Brazil; Tidestromia 1 of 6 NAM & Caribbean endemic spp native Dominican Republic; Xerosiphon 2 of 2 spp endemic to N+C+E Brazil.Polycnemoideae: Nitrophila 2 of 4 Americas endemic spp native Argentina, N Chile, with 1 sp endemic to each Antofagasta N Chile (1) and Argentina (1); Salicornioideae: Allenrolfea 2 of 3 Americas endemic spp are endemic to Argentina, other sp is endemic to SW NAM; Heterostachys 2 of 2 Neo & SAM endemic spp native Hispaniola, Colombia, Venezuela, Paraguay, Argentina, inc 1 narrow endemic of Buenos Aires, Mendoza & Rio Negro Argentina at N limit of Patagonia; Mangleticornia monospecific endemic of Ecuador, Peru; Salicornia ?? of 52 cosmopolitan spp native in coastal and inland saline areas of Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Antilles (exc Windward Is), Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, S Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Uruguay. Salsoideae: Salsola ?? of 64 mostly Eurasian intro Uruguay, C+S Chile, Argentina; Soda 1 of 2 Mediterranean spp intro NE Argentina. Suaedoideae: Suaeda ?? of 91 cosmopolitan spp native Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Cuba, Hispaniola, Leeward Is, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, Argentina, and extinct or extirpated Juan Fernandez Is.
Patagonia AmaranthaceaeGenera Include:
Amaranthoideae: Amaranthus 4 of 91 cosmopolitan spp native C+S Argentina, C+S Chile. Betoideae: Beta 1 of 10 Eurasian spp intro C Chile, S Argentina. Camphorosmoideae: Bassia 1 of 22 Old World & USA spp intro C Chile, S Argentina. Chenopodioideae: Atriplex 1 of 245 cosmopolitan spp native throughout Patagonia and intro Falkland Islands; Blitum 1 of 10 mostly N temperate spp intro S Argentina; Chenopodiastrum 1 of 8 N temperate & subtropical spp intro C+S Chile; Chenopodium 1 of 129 cosmopolitan spp native Patagonia; Dysphania 1 of 43 subcosmopolitan spp native Patagonia; Oxybasis 4 of 13 subcosmopolitan spp inc 3 spp native C+S Chile, S Argentina, Falkland Islands and 1 sp intro Patagonia. Gomphrenoideae: Alternanthera 1 of 113 mostly pantropical spp native just N of Patagonia in the mountains N of Bahia Blanca, S Argentina; Gomphrena ?? of 129 now pantropical spp native S Argentina. Polycnemoideae: Nitrophila 1 of 4 Americas endemic spp native S Argentina near N limit of Patagonia. Salicornioideae: Allenrolfea 1 of 3 Americas endemic spp is endemic to Argentina inc S Argentina; Heterostachys 1 of 2 Neo & SAM endemic spp a narrow endemic of Buenos Aires, Mendoza & Rio Negro Argentina at N limit of Patagonia;Salicornia ?? of 52 cosmopolitan spp native throughout Patagonia in salt marshes and lagoons. Salsoideae: Salsola ?? of 64 mostly Eurasian intro Patagonia. Suaedoideae: Suaeda 1 of 91 cosmopolitan spp native Patagonia inc Falkland Is.
Additional Information and References
Visit Lyrae’s Dictionary of Botanical Terms to learn the terminology of botanists. Note that if you hover over most of the words in the articles, you can also get definitions from them there.
Willis, Lyrae (Unpublished). Plant Families of North America. This is where all of the family descriptions come from. Below should be most of my references for this, as well as personal observations in North America.
Canadensys: Acadia University, Université de Montréal Biodiversity Centre, University of Toronto Mississauga, University of British Columbia. http://data.canadensys.net/explorer (accessed 2020 – current)
Delta: Watson, L., and Dallwitz, M.J. (1992+). The Families of Flowering Plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval. Version: 2nd May 2020. delta-intkey.com. Accessed spring through fall of 2020.
Flora of North America (FNA) (1993+). https://floranorthamerica.org/Main_Page.
Neotropikey: Milliken, W., Klitgård, B., & Baracat, A. eds. (2009+). Neotropikey: Interactive key and information resources for flowering plants of the Neotropics. www.kew.org/neotropikey.com (accessed 2020 – current).
POWO (2019). Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet: http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/
USDA, NRCS. 2020. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 2 June 2020). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC, USA; accessed throughout the fall of 2020.
The Anacardiaceae family is part of the Sapindales order of core dicots. When you learn to identify the Anacardiaceae family, you will quickly learn its most well-known members in North America, the sumac (Rhus spp) and poison ivy (Toxicodendronspp). The sumac trees are often used ornamentally for their ease of growing and their pretty red drupes that persist all winter. Poison ivy is well known to anyone who has ever hiked in the forest since it causes very itchy contact dermatitis.
There is an old saying, “Leaves of three, let it be,” since all of the Toxicodendron species that cause poison ivy rash have trifoliate leaflets. It is a good rule of thumb if you are unsure of your plant ID. But be aware that numerous innocuous species exist that also have trifoliate leaves, so do not assume it is always poison ivy. Poison ivy (shrub form) can also be mistaken for young oaks at times because the leaves often resemble those of the white oak.
Common Botanical Description
If you’re new to plant morphology, this is a perfect beginner’s description to learn to identify the Anacaradiaceae family, with no need to know any scientific jargon. For researchers or those wanting to learn a more in-depth version, check out the Scientific Botanical Description below.
Leaves and Stems: Mostly woody shrubs and trees or climbing vines with resin canals in their leaves, roots, and stems that often release a milky or resinous juice when damaged and that may be aromatic. Leaves are often arranged in a spiral pattern along the stem and may be simple (1 blade) or compound and made of multiple leaflets.
Flowers: These are usually quite small and occur in branched clusters called panicles. Most flowers have 5 sepals and 5 petals, but they may lack petals or they may all be more green and sepal-like. They often contain a ring-shaped nectary inside to attract pollinators.
Reproductive Features: These are quite diverse in the family, with bisexual flowers that contain both male and female parts or separate male and female flowers that may be on the same (monoecious) or separate plants (dioecious). There are usually 5-10 stamens and a superior ovary (sits above the point of petal attachment) with 1 or up to 6 styles (the tube that collects pollen) on top.
Fruits: The fruit is usually a fleshy drupe (think cherry but usually smaller) containing a fleshy outer part and a single hard pit. The fruits and sap of some species contain urushiol, the toxic oil responsible for the skin irritation of poison ivy (Toxicodendron species).
Uses of Anacardiaceae
Some Anacardiaceae are edible plants, such as cashew nuts (Anacardium and the fleshy peduncle of the cashew apple), mango (Mangifera), Jamaica plum, hog-plum, imbu (a plum-like fruit from Spondias), and Amarula cream (from Sclerocarya typically made into a liqueur). Resins, oils, and lacquers are derived from Toxicodendron. Several non-native Anacardiaceae are cultivated in the Neotropics for their edible fruits, including Bouea macrophylla,, Harpephyllum caffrum, Mangifera indica, Schinus terebinthifolia, Sclerocarya birrea subspecies caffra, and Spondias dulcis. Many Anacardiacea species are notorious for their allergenic properties that often cause severe rashes, particularly Toxicodendronspp. (Poison Oak, Poison Ivies).
Morphology of Anacardiaceae in North America
Some Anacardiaceae Species I have Covered So Far
Anacardioideae Subfamily
Mangifera indica—Mango
A 10-20 m tall tree with long oblong leaves and large edible drupes on very long peduncles. Native to Asia but widely cultivated in southern North America, especially in Mexico.
Pistacia vera—Pistacio
A small to medium-sized tree up to 10 m tall with deciduous, pinnate leaves 10–20 cm long. Flowers have no petals and male and female flowers occur on separate trees (dioecious). Fruits are a drupe containing the elongated pistacio “nut.” These flowers are male.
Rhus aromatica—Fragrant Sumac
A somewhat lemon-scented shrub with trifoliate lobed leaves and hairy red drupes. Dioecious with small inconspicuous flowers. Native throughout the USA, Mexico, and southeastern Canada.
Rhus copallinum—Shining Sumac
A tall shrub with glossy odd-pinnate leaves that have a conspicuously winged rachis or petiolules (visible in the photo). Native to eastern North America, often cultivated.
Rhus glabra—Smooth Sumac
A tall shrub with hairless branches and odd-pinnate leaves with 11 – 31 acuminate, serrated leaflets. Produces large dense panicles of red drupes like shown in the photo. Native to eastern North America with scattered populations in western North America.
Rhus microphylla—Littleleaf Sumac
A desert shrub that often flowers before its tiny, odd-pinnate, glossy green, leathery, hairy leaves emerge. Fruits are clusters of small hairy drupes. Native to the southwestern USA plus northern and central Mexico.
Rhus trilobata—Skunkbush Sumac
Despite its pungent, bitter scent that gives it a bad rap, it is not nearly as unpleasant as a skunk. It is a shrub with trifoliate lobed leaves (shown in the pic) and flowers in catkins, and its fruits are hairy, sticky red drupes. Native to western North America, including western Mexico.
Rhus typhina—Staghorn Sumac
A large shrub with odd-pinnate leaves with 9 – 31 serrated leaflets; stems and petioles are densely red-hairy (unlike R. glabra). Native to northeastern USA and southeastern Canada.
Toxicodendron radicans—Eastern Poison Ivy
A climbing vine (sometimes a shrub) with woody stems & trifoliate shiny leaves that are usually not serrated. Flowers are small, greenish, and inconspicuous. The fruit is a gray-white drupe. Causes contact dermatitis. Native to the eastern USA and Canada.
Toxicodendron rydbergii—Western Poison Ivy
A shrub with opposite trifoliate leaves that are often asymmetrical. The fruits are white, yellow, or brown drupes that are ribbed (green like in the photo when still immature). Native throughout the USA and Canada but mostly found in the West.
Scientific Botanical Description of the Anacardiaceae
Flowers of the Anacardiaceae
Plants can be hermaphroditic, monoecious, dioecious, gynodioecious, or polygamomonoecious. Pollination when heterantherous is entomophilous. Flowers are aggregated in racemose panicles. Flowers are small, regular, usually 5-merous, and either tetracyclic or pentacyclic. Free hypanthium is either absent or present but short. A hypogynous disk is present, intrastaminal and annular. The perianth has a distinct calyx and corolla or may be sepaline. The perianth has 3–5 or 6–10 parts in 1 or 2 whorls and is isomerous. Calyx has 3–5 parts in 1 whorl, is basally connate, often with cleft sepals, and lobes are shorter to longer than the tube. The calyx is regular and imbricate. The corolla, when present, has 3–5 parts in 1 whorl, is usually free but rarely can be connate basally, the lobes are longer than the tube, and it is imbricate.
Androecium of the Anacardiaceae
The androecium has 5–10(11–12) parts. Androecial members are free of the perianth and may be free of one another or coherent 1 adelphous, (the filaments are sometimes basally connate). The members may be all equal or unequal and can be either 1 or 2 whorled. Androecium may or may not include staminodes. When present, there are 1-9 staminodes. There are 5–10 (1–12) stamens; they are oppositisepalous, inserted at the base of the hypogynous disc, and are usually equal in number or twice as many as the petals. Anthers are usually dorsifixed or sometimes basifixed (Spondias), they are versatile, dehiscing via longitudinal slits, introrse, and tetrasporangiate.
Gynoecium of the Anacardiaceae
The gynoecium is usually 5-carpeled but can be 1–6 carpeled, and the pistil is 1–5 celled. The gynoecium is synovarious or synstylovarious, or rarely semicarpous. It is usually superior or sometimes partly inferior. The ovary is 1–5 locular. There is usually one style, but there may be 3–6 styles, and in Buchanania, it has up to five styles from sterile carpels. There are 1-5 stigmas; they are wet type, non-papillate, and Group IV type. Placentation, when unilocular, is parietal or basal, and when bi- or plurilocular, it is basal. There is 1 ovule per locule, it is pendulous or ascending, has either ventral or dorsal raphe, is non-arillate, anatropous, unitegmic or bitegmic, and crassinucellate.
Fruit of the Anacardiaceae
The fruit is usually a fleshy drupe, but sometimes it is an indehiscent non-fleshy dry fruit. The drupes have one stone, rarely open at maturity, and sometimes contain urushiol, a toxic irritant found in poison ivy and other species. Seeds are non-endospermic.
Habit & Leaf Form of the Anacardiaceae
Trees or shrubs, self-supporting or climbing, sometimes with a milky juice that may be resinous or laticiferous. Leaves are persistent or deciduous, alternate spiral except in Bouea, where they are opposite, herbaceous, and aromatic when resinous but otherwise odorless. They are simple or compound ternate, trifoliate, imparipinnate, or rarely paripinnate or bipinnate. Primary venation is pinnate or rarely palmate. Secondary venation is eucamptodromous, brochidodromous, craspedodromous, cladodromous, or rarely reticulodromous. If present, cladodromous venation is diagnostic for the Anacardiaceae family. Leaves are exstipulate. Lamina margins are entire. Domatia occur in 8 genera as pits, pockets, or hair tufts. Resin canals located in the inner fibrous bark and pith of the stems, roots, and leaves are characteristic of this family. Tannin sacs are very common.
Taxonomy of the Anacardiaceae Family
The Anacardiaceae have 873 species in 80 genera of the Sapindales order of core eudicots. There are two accepted subfamilies with several dissident genera in their own groups or unplaced; here I have put them all as “unplaced in a subfamily.” As APG updates these, this record will be updated to reflect any changes.
Anacardioideae – Trees or shrubs with black or colored resinous exudate and crystals are present in the xylem. Leaflets are not articulated, margins are usually entire, and the base of the petiole is often swollen. Flowers are 5(-7)-merous, the calyx is more or less connate basally, the gynoecium is typically 3-carpeled, and the stigma is dry and capitate or lobed. The fruit is a drupe that is layered with a crystalliferous endocarp.
Spondiadoideae – Deciduous trees or shrubs that typically cause contact dermatitis. Flower pedicels are often articulated, the gynoecium is 4-5(3) carpelled, and the stigma is only slightly expanded. Fruit is usually more than two-seeded (but sometimes only one), its pericarp may or may not have a lacuna, and the inner mesocarp is made of encircling fibers.
“Unplaced” includes the Sclerocarya complex of multiple genera, plus Buchanania and Campnosperma, which are grouped together, and some completely unplaced ones, including Attilaea, Haplospondias, Koordersiodendron, and Pentaspadon.
The Anacardiaceae differ from the similar Burseraceae by having usually alternate or sub-opposite leaves or leaflets compared to the almost always opposite leaflets of Burseraceae.
Distribution of Anacardiaceae
The Anacardiaceae family is mainly tropical to subtropical, with a few important genera found in temperate North America. They are widespread pantropically and also in the Mediterranean, eastern Asia, and the warm Americas.
Distribution of Anacardiaceae in the Americas
Canadian Genera Include:
Anacardioideae: Cotinus 1 of 7 NAM & Eurasian sp intro ON; Rhus 5 of 54 Americas, Mediterranean & S+SE Asia spp native all S provinces exc NL; Toxicodendron 3(4) of 27 Americas & S+E Asia spp native all S provinces except NL, inc YT.
USA Genera Include:
Cotinus 2 of 7 NAM & Eurasian spp inc 1 sp C+E USA endemic and 1 sp intro UT, TX, OK, AR, IL, MO, AL, GA, TN, KY, OH, PA, NY, MD, DE, NJ, CT, MA, VT;Lithraea 1 spp intro CA; Malosma monospecific S NAM endemic native CA; Mangifera 1 of 63 SE & Tropical Asia spp intro FL; Metopium 1 of 4 Mexican & Caribbean endemic spp native FL; Pistacia 3 of 11 pantropical spp inc 1 sp native TX and 2 spp intro CA, UT, OK, AL, GA, VA; Rhus 16 of 54 Americas, Mediterranean & S+SE Asia spp native and intro in the entire US inc HI (exc AK); Schinus 5 of 32 former SAM endemic spp intro CA, TX, AL, FL, and HI; Toxicondrendon 5 of 27 Americas & S+E Asia spp native in all USA. Spondiadoideae: Spondias 1 of 18 pantropical spp intro FL.
Mexico Genera Include:
Actinocheita monospecific Mesoamérica endemic of Honduras and Nay, Jal, Col, Mch, Gro, Oax, Pue; Amphipterygium 5 of 5 Mexico & N Neo endemic spp native most of Mexico exc NW Mexico, inc 2 endemics of SW Mexico (1), Dgo + Jal (1); Anacardium ?? of 20 former Neo endemic spp intro Nay, Jal, Col, Mch, Gro, Oax; Astronium 2 of 11 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native NE+SW+SE Mexico, Ver, inc 1 narrow endemic of Ver; Bonetiella monospecific endemic N to C Mexico; Comocladia 5 of 27 Mexico & N Neo endemic spp native in all of Mexico, inc 3 endemic to Mexico, 2 of which are narrow endemics of SW Mexico; Cotinus 3 of 7 NAM & Eurasian spp native Chi, Coa, NL, Tam, Dgo, Zac, Ags, Gto, Qro, Hgo, inc 2 spp endemic to Qro + SLP (1), Dgo + Coa (1); Lithraea 1 of 3 former Neo endemic sp native in Pue; Malosma monospecific S NAM endemic native BCN, BCS, Son, Sin, Chi, Coa, NL, Tam, SLP, Dgo, Zac, Mexican Pacific Islands; Mangifera 1 ?? of 63 SE & Tropical Asia spp intro SW+SE+C Mexico; Metopium 1 of 4 Mexican & Caribbean endemic spp native Ver, Chp, Cam, Tab, Yuc, QR; Mosquitoxylum monospecific N Neo endemic spp native S Mexico in Nay, Jal, Col, Mch, Gro, Oax, Chp, Ver, Tab, Cam, Yuc, QR; Pachycormus monospecific endemic of BCN, BCS; Pistacia 2 of 11 pantropical spp inc 1 sp native most of Mexico exc BC, BCS, Son, Sin and 1 sp intro N Mexico; Pseudosmodingium 5 of 5 spp endemic to most of Mexico exc SE Mexico; Rhus ?? of 54 Americas, Mediterranean & S+SE Asia spp native throughout Mexico inc Mexican Pacific Is; Schinus ?? of 32 former SAM endemic spp intro N and SW Mexico; Toxicodendron 4 of 27 Americas & S+E Asia spp native all of Mexico. Spondiadoideae: Spondias 3 of 18 pantropical spp native to all Mexico; Tapirira 2 of 7 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native SW Mexico, Pue, Ver, Cam, Tab, Yuc, QR, inc 1 narrow endemic of Oax + Ver. Unplaced: Attilaea monospecific recently published genus endemic to QR, Yuc & Guatemala?;Cyrtocarpa 3 of 5 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native most of Mexico exc Ver, inc 2 endemics of Mexico (1), SW+SE Mexico (1).
Neotropical Genera Include:
Anacardioideae: Actinocheita monospecific Mesoamerica endemic to SC Mexico, Honduras; Amphipterygium 3 of 5 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, NW Costa Rica; Anacardium 20 of 20 former Neo endemic spp native from Honduras S to Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, S Brazil, Cuba and intro rest of Antilles (exc Netherlands Antilles & Aruba), Belize, El Salvador, and pantropical;Apterokarpos (~Loxopterygium) endemic to the Caatinga of NE Brazil; Astronium 10 of 11 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native CAM S through tropical SAM to Peru, Bolivia, NE Argentina, S Brazil, inc 5 narrow endemics of Brazil (4), Trinidad-Tobago (1);Cardenasiodendron monospecific endemic to Bolivia; Comocladia 24 of 27 Mexico & N Neo endemic spp native Guatemala, Belize, Greater Antilles, Leeward & Windward Is, 15 spp are single island endemics of Jamaica (6), Hispaniola (5), Cuba (2), Dominican Republic (1), Haiti (1), inc 1 extinct sp of the Windward Is; Haplorhus monospecific endemic to the dry inter-Andean valleys of Peru to N Chile; Lithraea 3 of 3 Mexico & SAM endemic spp of C+E+S Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, N Argentina, Uruguay, C Chile and C Mexico, inc 1 narrow endemic of C Chile;Loxopterygium 4 of 4 SAM endemic spp of Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, NW Argentina, NE Brazil, inc 1 narrow endemic of NE Brazil; Mangifera 1 of 63 SE & Tropical Asia spp intro Guatemala, Belize, Honduras El Salvador, Costa Rica, Galapagos, Antilles (exc Netherlands Antilles, Aruba), Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Paraguay, S Brazil; Mauria 15 of 15 Neo endemic spp native from Costa Rica S to Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, NW Argentina; Metopium 4 of 4 Mexican & Caribbean endemic spp native Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Antilles (exc Leeward Is & Venezuelan Antilles), SW Caribbean; Mosquitoxylum monospecific N Neo endemic of Jamaica, S Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Ecuador; Myracrodruon 2 of 2 SAM endemic spp of Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, N Argentina; Ochoterenaea monospecific N SAM endemic, Andean Venezuela and Colombia, Bolivia, Panama?; Orthopterygium monospecific endemic to W Peru;Pistacia 1 of 11 pantropical spp native Guatemala, Honduras, absent SAM; Rhus ?? of 54 Americas, Mediterranean & S+SE Asia spp native Cuba, Bahamas, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, intro Trinidad-Tobago, absent SAM; Schinopsis 7 of 7 SAM endemic spp of Peru, Bolivia, C+E Brazil, Paraguay, N Argentina; Schinus 32 of 32 spp former SAM endemic spp native Peru, Bolivia, C+E+S Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, Chile, Argentina, absent Amazonia, intro Ecuador, Colombia, Bermuda, Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Trinidad-Tobago, Venezuelan Antilles, Guatemala, El Salvador, Mexico & pantropical; Semecarpus 1 of 87 SE & Tropical Asia spp intro Trinidad-Tobago; Thyrsodium 6 of 6 spp N SAM endemic spp of Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Venezuela, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, N+C+E Brazil, absent Andes; Toxicodendron 3 of 27 Americas & S+E Asia spp inc 2 spp native Bermuda, Bahamas, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and 1 Asia sp intro Cuba. Spondiadoideae: Dracontomelon 1 of 9 tropical SE Asia spp intro Trinidad-Tobago; Spondias 12 of 18 pantropical spp inc 11 native Antilles, CAM S through tropical SAM S to Peru, Bolivia, C+SE Brazil, and 1 Asian spp intro Guatemala, Belize, Nicaragua, Panama, Greater Antilles, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, French Guyana, N+SE Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, inc 6 narrow endemics of E Brazil; Tapirira 10 of 11 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native CAM and tropical SAM S to Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, S Brazil, inc 3 narrow endemics of Costa Rica (1), Colombia (1), French Guiana (1). Unplaced: Antrocaryon 1 of 5 otherwise Africa endemic spp is a N SAM endemic native to Colombia, Amazonian N+C Brazil; Campnosperma 2 of 14 otherwise Madagascar & tropical SE Asia & Australasia spp are Neo endemics from Honduras S to Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru and Amazonian N Brazil; Cyrtocarpa 2 of 5 Mexico + Neo endemic spp native Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, N+C+E Brazil, Netherlands Antilles, inc 1 endemic of Brazil.
Patagonia Genera Include:
Anacardioideae: Lithraea 1 of 3 Mexico + SAM endemic spp native Bio Bio to Los Lagos C Chile; Schinus 6 of 32 former SAM endemic spp native Patagonia.
Additional Information and References
Visit Lyrae’s Dictionary of Botanical Terms to learn the terminology of botanists. Note that if you hover over most of the words in the articles, you can also get definitions from them there.
Willis, Lyrae (Unpublished). Plant Families of North America. This is where all of the family descriptions come from. Below should be most of my references for this, along with my own observations in North America.
Canadensys: Acadia University, Université de Montréal Biodiversity Centre, University of Toronto Mississauga, University of British Columbia. http://data.canadensys.net/explorer (accessed 2020 – current)
Flora of North America (1993+). https://floranorthamerica.org/Main_Page.
Delta: Watson, L., and Dallwitz, M.J. (1992+). The Families of Flowering Plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval. Version: 2nd May 2020. delta-intkey.com. Accessed spring through fall of 2020.
Neotropikey: Milliken, W., Klitgård, B. & Baracat, A. eds. (2009+). Neotropikey: Interactive key and information resources for flowering plants of the Neotropics. www.kew.org/neotropikey.com (accessed 2020 – current).
POWO (2019). Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet: http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/ Retrieved Winter 2020-current.
USDA, NRCS. 2020. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 2 June 2020). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC, USA; accessed throughout fall of 2020.
When you learn how to identify the Acanthaceae family, it helps to understand that it is part of the Lamiales order of core eudicots and, as such, is closely related to the Lamiaceae, or Mint family, with which it shares several characteristics. The Acanthaceae are widespread in tropical and subtropical regions, but the USA has quite a few, and they can even be found in temperate Canada. Acanthaceae are usually herbs or shrubs and typically have zygomorphic flowers in white, pink, blue, and shades of purple. Several species are used ornamentally and medicinally. In the field, if you are injured, you can crush the leaves of most Acanthaceae and apply them directly to the wounds to aid in healing.
Common Botanical Description
If you’re new to plant morphology, this guide is a perfect beginner’s description to learn about the Acanthaceae family, with no need to know any scientific jargon. Below is additional information on uses and morphology, as well as pictures to help identify family members and individual species found in North America. But for researchers or those wanting to learn a more in-depth version, check out the Scientific Botanical Description below the images in addition to genus-level distribution data.
Leaves and Stemsof the Acanthaceae: Most members are tropical herbs, shrubs, or climbing vines that twine in a clockwise direction. Leaves are mostly simple (not compound) and arranged in opposite pairs along the stem, which often has swollen joints (nodes). Many species have mineral crystals (cystoliths) visible in their leaves and are covered with small hairs.
Flowersof the Acanthaceae: Flowers may be small or very large and showy and are typically irregular in shape, often forming funnel-shaped flowers or two-lipped flowers where the petals are joined at the base into a tube. Flowers are almost always surrounded by large, showy, leaf-like structures called bracts, which are very characteristic of the family (excluding the Thunbergioideae subfamily, which lacks the showy bracts).
Reproductive Featuresof the Acanthaceae: Most flowers contain both male and female parts (hermaphrodite or bisexual), with 2-4 stamens (male parts) attached inside the petal tube, often accompanied by smaller, sterile “fake stamens” (staminodes). The superior ovary (attached above the point of petal attachment) has a long, thread-like tube (style) on top to catch pollen and a nectary at the base to attract pollinators.
Fruitsof the Acanthaceae: Fruits are almost always a dry, 2-chambered capsule that usually splits explosively when dry to scatter its seeds via small, hooked stalks (retinacula) attached to the seeds that aid in their ejection from the fruit.
Uses of Acanthaceae
The leaves of many Acanthaceae are used externally for wounds. Research has shown that the family has antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, antioxidant, insecticidal, immunomodulatory, anti-platelet aggregation, and antiviral potential. More research is currently underway. Notable ornamentals include bear’s-breech (Acanthusmollis), clock vine (Thunbergia), shrimp plant (Justicia brandegeana), and caricature plant (Graptophyllum pictum).
Morphology of Acanthaceae in North America
Morphology of the Acanthaceae Family
Acanthaceae Species I have Covered So Far in North America
Acanthoideae Subfamily
Acanthus mollis—Bear’s Breeches
A clump-forming perennial herb with tuberous roots, a basal rosette of deeply lobed leaves, and tall spikes of pinkish or purplish flowers. Native to the Mediterranean, often cultivated in North America for its leaves and flowers.
Carlowrightia arizonica – Arizona Wrightwort
Heavily branched subshrubs are 10–30 cm tall, or sometimes taller. Leaves are simple, opposite, and variable in size and shape but approximately lanceolate. Flowers are narrowly triangular with 2 lateral petal lobes, 2 upper lobes fused together with a yellow spot and purple streaks, and a keeled bottom lobe. Native to Texas, Arizona, California, and northern Mexico.
Dicliptera resupinata—Arizona Foldwing
Erect herb up to 60 cm tall with heavily branching pubescent stems; leaves are lanceolate, 2 – 6 cm long. Flowers are two-lipped, light purple with small dark purple lines near the center, and surrounded by two heart-shaped bracts. Native to southern AZ and NM, United States, and northwest Mexico.
Justicia pilosella—Hairy Tubetongue
Herbaceous perennial to 30 cm tall with opposite leaves that may be pubescent or glabrous but with ciliate margins and zygomorphic sessile flowers with a long, white, pubescent tubular corolla with 4 pink or purple lobes, 3 of which bend outwards strongly. Narrowly endemic to southern TX and southern NM in the USA, plus arid northeastern Mexico.
Ruellia blechum—Green Shrimp Plant
Short herbaceous erect or clambering perennial with opposite ovate leaves and a conspicuously pyramidal-shaped inflorescence with often pilose pyramidal bracts from Paco’s Nature Reserve, Sinaloa, Mexico; conspicuous inflorescence spike with pyramidal bracts. Native to Mexico, Central & South America.
Ruellia caroliniensis – Carolina Wild Petunia
Unbranched herbaceous perennial to 1 m with opposite, oval leaves and sessile axillary clusters of 2 – 4 flowers with usually only 1 – 2 open at a time; leaves and flowers are crowded together at the top of the plant. Flowers are light purple to pinkish with a slender corolla tube and 5 petaloid lobes and long-pointed calyx lobes. Native throughout the eastern USA.
Ruellia humilis – Wild Petunia
Perennial herb up to 60 cm tall with tubular, bell-shaped flowers with a long, skinny white tube and five shallow rounded lavender to lilac-colored petals; singly or in clusters in upper axils, not crowded at the top of the plant. Native to the eastern and central USA.
Ruellia nudiflora – Violet Wild Petunia
An erect, 30 – 60 cm tall perennial with few branches and opposite gray-green leaves 5 – 12 cm long with wavy-toothed margins on short petioles. Terminal inflorescence of lavender to purple trumpet-shaped flowers (bractless, hence “nudiflora”) with inserted stamens. Native to the southern USA (AZ east to AL), Mexico, and Central America.
Ruellia strepens – Smooth Wild Petunia
An herbaceous perennial plant 0.5 – 1 m tall, sometimes branching with hairless or sparsely hairy stems; opposite leaves up to 13 cm long, lanceolate to ovate with smooth or slightly undulate margins and mostly hairless surfaces. Nearly sessile flowers in clusters of 1 – 3 in upper axils. Native to the south-central & southeast USA.
Tetramerium nervosum – Hairy Fournwort
Subshrub to 30 cm tall with opposite lanceolate leaves. Flowers in conspicuous pilose leafy bracts on hairy, 4-sided spike inflorescences; tubular with an upper lobe with a violet patch and a yellow base, 2 side lobes, and a keel-like lower lobe. Native to AZ and TX, USA, and south through Mexico and Central America to Venezuela.
Nelsonioideae Subfamily
Elytraria imbricata – Purple Scaly Stem
Weedy subshrub with linear leaves crowded at the top of the plant that may be basal and stemless or up to 60 cm tall. Inflorescences with very appressed bracts, blue flowers. Native from the southern USA to northern Argentina, mostly in dry tropical forests.
Thunbergioideae Subfamily
Thunbergia grandiflora – Blue Trumpet Vine
A twining evergreen vine 2 – 2.5 m long, with large, heart-shaped, bright green leaves and large, showy, lavender-blue, trumpet-shaped flowers up to 7 cm across with a yellow or white throat. Native throughout Southeast Asia. Often cultivated as an annual in North America.
Scientific Description of the Acanthaceae
This section is for researchers or others wanting a more in-depth scientific description to learn how to identify the Acanthaceae family.
Flowers of the Acanthaceae
Plants are always hermaphrodites. Pollination is entomophilous, and the mechanism may be conspicuously specialized or not. Flowers are aggregated in racemes, cymes, or verticils. Often they are in dichasial cymes that become monochasial in the ultimate branches and are often condensed in the leaf axils. Flowers may or may not be pseudanthial. Flowers are both bracteate and bracteolate, and the bracts and bracteoles are often large and showy. Bracts are absent in Thunbergioideae, but bracteoles are present, and bracts are present, but bracteoles are absent in the Nelsonioideae. Flowers are usually more or less zygomorphic or sometimes actinomorphic. The floral irregularity involves the perianth and the androecium. Flowers are 4 or 5 merous and are tetracyclic. Free hypanthium is absent. A hypogynous disk is present. Perianth has a distinct calyx and corolla with 8(6–7) or 10 parts in 2 whorls and may be isomerous or anisomerous. Calyx has 4(3) or 5 parts in 1 whorl, is connate, and is variously entire, lobulate, or blunt-lobed, with the lobes shorter or longer than the tube. Varying degrees of gamosepaly from 0.5 to 0.9. The calyx may be imbricate, valvate, contorted, or open in bud. When the calyx has 5 parts, it is free with the median member posterior. The corolla has 4 or 5 parts, or 3 parts when the upper lip is suppressed. It is 1 whorled and connate, at least basally. The corolla tube is adaxially deeply split in Acanthus and others, where the upper lip of the corolla is cut away almost to the base of the tube. Corolla lobes may be shorter to longer than the tube. The degree of gamopetaly is 0.5–0.75. The corolla is imbricate ascending cochlear or quincuncial, contorted (left or right) or sometimes with open aestivation (Acanthus). It may be bilabiate, unequal but not bilabiate, with the upper lip at times suppressed, or maybe almost regular.
Androecium of the Acanthaceae
The androecium has 2 or 4(5) members. Androecial members are adnate with the filaments usually inserted on the corolla tube. They may be all equal or unequal, free of one another or coherent 2 adelphous (partially connate in pairs), and 1 whorled. The androecium usually includes staminodes or may be made of exclusively fertile stamens (rarely Ruellia). When present, there are 1-3 staminodes in the same series as the fertile stamens. There are 4(5) or 2 stamens that usually extend beyond the mouth of the flower and are inserted near the base, midway down, or in the throat of the corolla tube, and they are usually didynamous and may or may not be hairy or spurred. Stamens are always oppositisepalous, alternating with the corolla members. Anthers may be separate from one another or connivent; are dorsifixed (often with one lobe reduced or abortive) or adnate, dehiscing via longitudinal slits; are unilocular to bilocular, are tetrasporangiate, and may or may not be appendaged (often with a long connective).
Gynoecium of the Acanthaceae
The gynoecium is 2-carpelled, and the pistil is 2-celled. The gynoecium is synstylovarious to syncarpous and superior. The ovary is 2-locular and sessile. The gynoecium is median. There is one style that is attenuate from the ovary, apical, and usually filiform and much longer than the ovary. There are two stigmas with the posterior often smaller: they are the dry type (wet in Thunbergioideae), non-papillate (papillate in Thunbergioideae), and Group II type. Placentation is axile. Each locule contains 2-50 ovules that are non-arillate or arillate (occasionally with funicular aril), anatropous to campylotropous, and unitegmic.
Fruit of the Acanthaceae
Fruit is a non-fleshy, 2-chambered loculicidal capsule dehiscing somewhat explosively or sometimes an achene (Avicennia). In most species, the seeds are attached to a small hooked stalk that ejects them from the capsule. Seeds are non-endospermic, borne on retinacula, may or may not be conspicuously hairy, and may or may not contain amyloid.
Habit & Leaf Form of the Acanthaceae
Mostly tropical herbs, shrubs, or twining vines, with some epiphytes or rarely trees (with pneumatophores and sometimes stilt roots in Avicennia). Leaves are usually well developed but sometimes are much reduced, or occasionally plants are aphyllous switch-plants. Leaves may be heterophyllous or isophyllous and are often swollen at the nodes. Branches are terete to angular in cross-section. Herbs are annual or perennial, with or without a basal aggregation of leaves. Most plants are self-supporting but may also be epiphytic or climbing (sometimes in Adhatoda). When they climb, they are stem twiners, root climbers, or scramblers with twiners twining clockwise. Tree forms are always leptocaul. Plants may be hydrophytic, helophytic (including a few mangroves), mesophytic (many from damp tropical forests), or xerophytic. Leaves are arranged opposite distichous or decussate (rarely alternate or whorled), are simple, and may or may not be gland-dotted. The lamina is dissected or entire, pinnately veined, and cross-venulate. Leaves are exstipulate. Lamina margins are entire, crenate, serrate, or dentate and may be flat, revolute, or involute. Domatia occur in 3 genera as hair tufts. The leaf lamina is dorsiventral (sometimes incomplete) or bifacial (isobilateral in several genera), with or without epidermal salt glands (present on both leaf surfaces in Acanthus ilicifolius). The abaxial epidermis may be papillose or not. Stomata are almost always diacytic, but in Lepidagathis, they are paracytic. Stomata are mainly confined to the abaxial surface or sometimes found on both surfaces. Hairs of diverse kinds are present throughout the family and are usually small and short-stalked and may be eglandular, unicellular, uniseriate, or glandular (may always be glandular in Nelsonioideae). Unicellular and multicellular hairs are branched or simple. Lamina does not have secretory cavities. Cystoliths are very often present as streaks in the lamina but are absent in Acantheae and Aphelandreae. In numerous genera, the mesophyll has sclerenchymatous idioblasts as bundles of unique acicular fibers.
Taxonomy of Acanthaceae
The Acanthaceae family has 4605 species in 191 genera. It is part of the Lamiales order of the Core Eudicots. There are four subfamilies of Acanthaceae recognized:
Acanthoideae – herbs or sometimes shrubs, with petiole bundles arranged in a circle. Corolla often has the abaxial lobe outside others when in bud. Anthers are sagittate, or the thecae are displaced and not opposite, sometimes with one theca more or less reduced. Stigma is dry and typically bifid. Capsules are obovoid and explosive; seeds are flattened and borne on hook-like hardened funicles.
Avicennioideae – trees with pneumatophores, sometimes stilt roots. The leaf lamina is thick with salt glands on both sides, club-shaped hairs, and colleters. Flowers are 4(-6) merous and quincuncial, with nectar glands on the inside of the tube. Stamens are equal and alternate with the corolla. Stigma has two blunt lobes. Fruit is an achene with large seeds that are more or less viviparous.
Nelsonioideae – herbs with glandular hairs. The inflorescence may be terminal or axillary, bracts are spiral, and bracteoles are sometimes absent. Corolla with descending cochleate aestivation with the adaxial lobes outside the others. There are 2 stamens with variable anthers with thecae that may or may not be separate. The stigma is broadly lobed.
Thunbergioideae – twining vines, sometimes erect. Petiole bundles are arcuate or annular with wing bundles. Leaf lamina vernation is strongly curved. Inflorescence is axillary flowers or fasciculate. They have no bracts but have very large bracteoles that may or may not be connate. Anthers have lignified unicellular hairs, are sagittate, dehisce by pores or sometimes slits, and have an elongated connective. The stigma is small, wet, sub-bilobed to trumpet-shaped, and has broad and often unequal papillate lobes.
Acanthaceae are most often confused with Lamiaceae or Verbenaceae. Both the Lamiaceae and Verbenaceae usually have squarish stems as opposed to terete or angular, and their leaf nodes are not swollen. Acanthaceae has bracteoles not seen in the other two families, and their stamens are often hairy or spurred. Acanthaceae fruits are dry capsules that are often forcibly ejected as opposed to nutlets in Lamiaceae or drupes or berries in Verbenaceae.
Distribution of Acanthaceae
Acanthanceae are mostly tropical and subtropical species, with a few temperate outliers. Native throughout Africa, Australia, Indonesia, and the Americas.
Distribution of Acanthaceae in the Americas
Canadian Genera Include:
Acanthoideae: Dianthera 1 of 41 former Americas endemic spp native ON, QC; Justica 1 sp native in QC and ON.
USA Genera Include:
Acanthoideae: Acanthus 1 of 30 Old World Tropics spp intro CA; Andrographis 1 of 26 Indian & S Asia spp intro VA; Anisacanthus 4 of 13 Americas endemic spp native to AZ, NM, TX;Asystasia 1 of 55 Old World Tropics spp intro FL, AL?;Barleria 2 of 286 pantropical spp intro FL; Carlowrightia 8 of 27 Americas endemic spp native CA, AZ, NM, TX, intro FL;Dianthera 9 of 41 former Americas endemic spp inc 8 native and 1 intro AZ, KS S to TX and all E to NJ and S to FL from there plus IA, MI, NY, VT, genus now intro Africa, Malaya; Dicliptera 4 of 216 pantropical spp native to S half of USA from AZ E to NC and all S plus KS, MO, IL, IN, KY, VA; Dyschoriste 6 of 94 pantropical spp native to NM, AZ, TX, LA, OK, FL, AL, GA, SC; Eranthemum 1 of 22 S Asia spp intro FL; Graptophyllum 1 of 15 African sp intro FL; Hemigraphis 2 of 38 tropical Asia spp intro LA, FL; Henrya 1 of 3 Americas endemic spp native AZ; Hygrophila 6 of 78 pantropical spp native and intro TX, LA, AL, MS, GA, FL, VA, inc 1 sp formerly known as Nomaphila intro TX; Hypoestes 1 of 138 Old World Tropics spp intro HI; Justicia 19 of 935 pantropical spp native and intro in most of S half USA CA E to NJ and all S exc NV, UT, CO and inc IA, WI, MI, NY, VT; Megaskepasma monospecific former N SAM endemic inro HI; Odontonema 2 of 32 mostly Americas endemic spp intro FL; Pseuderanthemum 1 of 128 pantropical spp intro FL, SC; Ruellia 22 of 361 mostly pantropical spp native in most of E half USA from ND S to TX and all E exc ND, SD, CT, RI, MA, VT, NH, ME and inc AZ, NM, but intro in AK, NY; Sanchezia 1 of 55 former Neo endemic spp intro HI; Stenandrium 2 of 66 Americas & African spp native NM, TX, FL, GA; Tetramerium 1 of 30 sub & tropical Americas endemic spp native NM, AZ, TX; Yeatesia 2 of 3 SE NAM endemic spp native TX, LA, AL, MS, FL, GA. Avicennioideae: Avicennia 2 of 8 pantropical spp native TX, MS, AL, GA, LA, FL, intro CA. Nelsonioideae:Elytraria 3 of 21 pantropical spp native NM, AZ, TX, FL, GA, SC, inc 1 narrow endemic of GA, FL, SC; Nelsonia 1 of 3 Old World Tropics spp intro FL. Thunbergioideae:Thunbergia 5 of 151 Old World Tropics spp intro TX, FL and HI.
Mexico Genera Include:
Acanthoideae: Acanthus 1 of 30 Old World Tropics spp intro Pue; Andrographis ?? of 26 Indian & S Asia spp intro Pue, Tlx, Mor, Ver;Anisacanthus 7 of 13 Americas endemic spp native throughout all of Mexico, inc 3 endemic to Mexico inc 1 a narrow endemic of Son + Chi; Aphanosperma sinaloensis monospecific endemic BC, BCS, Son, Sin, Chi, Dgo, Zac, NL, Tam; Aphelandra ?? of 199 former Mexico & Neo endemic spp native throughout all of Mexico; Barleria ?? of 286 pantropical spp native most of Mexico exc BC, BCS, Son, Sin; Bravaisia 3 of 3 Mexico + N Neo endemic spp native much of Mexico exc BC, BCS, Son, Sin;Carlowrightia 26 of 27 Americas endemic spp native through all of Mexico inc 15 endemics of Mexico, 7 of which are narrow endemics of Tam (3), Chi (2), Sin (1), Yuc (1); Chalarothyrsus monospecific endemic of Nay, Jal, Col, Mch, Gro, Oax, Pue; Chileranthemum 3 of 3 spp native most of Mexico exc BC, BCS, Son, Sin, inc 1 narrow endemic of Jal + Gro; Dianthera ?? of 41 former Americas endemic spp native throughout all of Mexico, genus now intro Africa, Malaya; Dicliptera ?? of 216 pantropical spp native all of Mexico; Dyschoriste ?? of 94 pantropical spp native throughout all of Mexico; Gypsacanthus monospecific endemic of Nay, Jal, Col, Mch, Gro, Oax, Pue; Henrya 3 of 3 Americas endemic spp native in all of Mexico, inc 2 endemic to S+W Mexico; Holographis 17 of 17 spp endemic throughout all of Mexico; Hoverdenia monospecific endemic of Chi, Coa, NL, SLP, Dgo, Zac, Ver; Hygrophila ?? of 78 pantropical spp native Nay, Jal, Col, Mch, Gro, Oax, Chp, Ver, Yuc, QR, Cam, Tab; Hypoestes 1 of 138 Old World Tropics spp intro much of Mexico exc BC, BCS, Son, Sin, Cam, Tab, Chp, Yuc, QR; Justicia 20+ of 935 pantropical spp native throughout all of Mexico; Lepidagathis ?? of 142 pantropical spp native Nay, Jal, Col, Gro, Mch, Oax, Chp, Pue, Mor, Ver, Cam, Tab, Yuc, QR; Louteridium 9 of 11 Mexico + Neo endemic spp native most of Mexico exc BC, BCS, Son, Sin, inc 6 narrow endemics of Mch (1), Oax (1), Jal + Mch (1), Ver + Chp (1), Gro (1), Tam (1); Mexacanthus monospecific endemic Nay, Jal, Col, Mch, Gro, Oax; Mirandea 6 of 6 Mexico endemic spp native most of Mexico exc Pue, BC, BCS, Son, Sin; Odontonema ?? of 32 mostly Americas endemic spp native in all of Mexico; Pachystachys 1 of 18 Neo endemic spp native Chp, Cam, Tab, QR, Yuc, intro Nay, Jal, Col, Gro, Mch, Oax; Poikilacanthus 5 of 13 Neo endemic spp native Nay, Jal, Col, Mch, Gro, Oax, Chp, Pue, Tab, Cam, Yuc, QR, inc 4 endemic to Mexico, 3 of which are narrow endemics of Oax (1), Col + Mch + Oax (1); Pseuderanthemum ?? of 128 pantropical spp native throughout all of Mexico; Ruellia ?? of 361 mostly pantropical spp native throughout all of Mexico; Sanchezia ?? of 55 former Neo endemic spp intro Chp, Tab, Cam, Yuc, QR; Spathacanthus 3 of 4 Mexico + CAM endemic spp native Nay, Jal, Col, Mch, Gro, Pue, Ver, Chp, Tab, Cam, Yuc, QR, inc 1 narrow endemic of Ver; Stenostephanus ?? of 81 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native most of Mexico exc BC, Son, Sin; Streblacanthus 2 of 3 Mexico & N Neo endemic spp native Nay, Jal, Col, Mch, Gro, Oax, Ver;Tabascina monospecific endemic Chp, Tab, Cam, Yuc, QR; Tetramerium 25 of 30 sub & tropical Americas spp native in all of Mexico, inc 21 endemics of Mexico, 10 of which are narrow endemics of Oax (3), Mch (2), Gro (2), Oax + Chp (1), Jal + Col (1), Sin (1);Yeatesia 3 of 3 SE NAM endemic spp native Chi, Coa, NL, Tam, Dgo, Zac, SLP, Hgo, Mex?, inc 1 endemic of NE Mexico. Avicennioideae: Avicennia 2 of 8 pantropical spp native most of Mexico exc C Mexico. Nelsonioideae:Elytraria 4 of 21 pantropical spp native all of Mexico inc Mexican Pacific Is, inc 2 endemics to Mexico; Nelsonia 1 of 3 Old World Tropics spp intro Nay, Jal, Col, Gro, Mch, Oax; Staurogyne ?? of 149 pantropical spp native Nay, Jal, Col, Mch, Gro, Oax; Stenandrium ?? of 66 Americas & African spp native throughout all of Mexico. Thunbergioideae:Mendoncia ?? of 89 Americas and Africa spp native Nay, Jal, Col, Mch, Gro, Oax, Chp, Ver, Tab, Cam, Yuc, QR; Thunbergia ?? of 151 Old World Tropics spp intro much of Mexico exc BC, BCS, Son, Sin.
Neotropical Genera Include:
Acanthoideae:Ancistranthus monospecific endemic of Cuba; Andrographis ?? of 26 Indian & S Asia spp intro Bahamas, Cuba, Hispaniola, Leeward & Windward Is;Anisacanthus 6 of 13 Americas endemic spp native El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, E Brazil, inc 5 narrow endemics of Nicaragua (1), Costa Rica (1), E Brazil (3); Aphelandra 199 of 199 former Mexico & Neo endemic spp native Mexico S through CAM, Trinidad-Tobago, tropical SAM S to Peru, N Argentina exc N Chile, Paraguay, Uruguay, intro in Cuba, Dominican Republic, Windward Is, & S Asia; Asystasia 2 of 55 Old World Tropics spp inc 1 sp endemic to Panama (the only New World native sp) and 1 sp intro Belize, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Antilles (exc Netherlands Antilles), Venezuela, SE Brazil; Barleria ?? of 286 pantropical spp native CAM, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, intro Bahamas, Antilles (exc Cayman Is), SW Caribbean, Trinidad-Tobago, French Guiana, S Brazil; Barleriola 4 of 4 Greater Antilles endemic spp of Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Puerto Rico; Bravaisia 3 of 3 spp Mexico & N Neo endemic spp native CAM, Cuba, Colombia, Venezuela, Trinidad-Tobago, intro Venezuelan Antilles, Windward Is; Brillantaisia 1 of 14 African spp intro Jamaica; Carlowrightia 4 of 27 Americas endemic spp native CAM (exc Panama), Ecuador, inc 1 narrow endemic of Ecuador;Cephalacanthus monospecific endemic of Peru; Chamaeranthemum 5 of 5 Neo endemic spp of Costa Rica, Peru, SE+S Brazil, inc 4 narrow endemics of Costa RIca (2), Rio de Janeiro SE Brazil (1), Santa Catarina S Brazil (1); Chileranthemum 2 of 3 Mexico + CAM endemic spp native Guatemala, El Salvador; Clistax 3 of 3 spp endemic to N+E+S Brazil;Crossandra 1 of 54 African + Indian spp intro Antilles (exc Cayman Is, Netherlands Antilles), El Salvador, Nicaragua; Cuenotia monospecific endemic NE Brazil; Cyphacanthus monospecific endemic Colombia; Dasytropis monospecific endemic Cuba; Dianthera 41 of 41 former Americas endemic spp native E Canada & USA S through Mexico, CAM, Antilles (exc Cayman Is & Netherland Antilles), and S through tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc N Chile), intro Bermuda, Africa, Malaya; Dichazothece monospecific endemic SE Brazil; Dicliptera ?? of 216 pantropical spp native CAM, Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Greater Antilles (exc Cayman Is), Leeward & Windward Is, Trinidad-Tobago, tropical SAM S to N Chile, N Argentina; Dyschoriste ?? of 94 pantropical spp native CAM (exc Belize), Cuba, Hispaniola, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, C+S+SE Brazil, N Argentina, Uruguay, intro Leeward Is; Encephalosphaera 3 of 3 N SAM spp endemic spp of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, N Brazil; Eranthemum 1 of 22 S Asia spp intro El Salvador, Antilles (exc Puerto Rico, Netherlands Antilles, Cayman Is), Trinidad-Tobago, Suriname;Fittonia 2 of 2 former N SAM endemic spp native Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, N Brazil and intro El Salvador, Myanmar, Bangladesh; Graptophyllum 1 of 15 African spp intro Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto RIco, Jamaica, Leeward Is, Venezuelan Antilles, Trinidad-Tobago, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Venezuela; Harpochilus 2 of 2 spp endemic to NE Brazil; Henrya 1 of 3 Americas endemic spp native CAM (exc Belize); Herpetacanthus 21 of 21 Neo endemic spp native Costa Rica, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Ecuador, French Guiana, Suriname, Peru, Bolivia, N+E Brazil; Hygrophila ?? of 78 pantropical spp native Greater Antilles (exc Cayman Is), Trinidad-Tobago, CAM (exc Costa Rica), tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc N Chile);Hypoestes 1 of 138 Old World Tropics spp intro Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Panama, Colombia, Paraguay;Isotheca monospecific endemic Venezuela and Trinidad-Tobago; Justicia ?? of 935 pantropical spp native widespread CAM, Greater Antilles (exc Cayman Is), Leeward & Windward Is, Trinidad-Tobago, tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc N Chile); Kalbreyeriella 4 of 4 Neo endemic spp native Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, N Brazil, Ecuador, Peru; Lepidagathis ?? of 142 pantropical many CAM, Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Leeward & Windward Is, Trinidad-Tobago, tropical SAM S to Peru, NW Argentina, Paraguay, S Brazil; Liberatia 2 of 2 SAM endemic spp of Bolivia, SE+S Brazil; Louteridium 5 of 11 Mexico & Neo spp endemic spp native CAM (exc El Salvador), inc 1 narrow endemic of Belize; Megaskepasma monospecific former N SAM endemic of Suriname, Venezuela, now intro in Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Panama, Trinidad-Tobago and Hawaii; Morsacanthus monospecific endemic S Brazil; Neriacanthus 5 of 5 Neo endemic spp of Panama, Jamaica, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela; Nicoteba 1 of 4 African spp intro Panama, Colombia, Guyana; Odontonema 32 of 32 spp former Americas endemic spp native from Mexico S through CAM, Cuba, Haiti, Leeward & Windward Is, Trinidad-Tobago, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, N+E Brazil, Guyana, intro Paraguay. Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Galapagos as well as Tonga and Samoa; Oplonia 16 of 21 Neo & Madagascar spp native Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Leeward Is, Peru, Bolivia, NW Argentina, inc 13 narrow endemics of Cuba (8), Jamaica (3), Peru (2), 5 spp in genus are endemic to Madagascar; Orophochilus monospecific endemic of Peru; Pachystachys 18 of 18 former Neo endemic spp native Panama, Cuba Lesser Antilles (exc Netherlands Antilles), tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc Suriname, N CHile, Uruguay), intro SW Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico and S Asia; Phaulopsis 1 of 21 Old World Tropics spp intro Colombia, Jamaica; Poikilacanthus 9 of 13 Neo endemic spp native Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Venezuela, Peru, Bolivia, E+S Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, N Argentina, inc 6 narrow endemics of Guatemala (2), Bahia NE Brazil (1), São Paulo SE Brazil (1), Peru (1), Trujillo Venezuela (1); Polylychnis monospecific endemic of Guyana & French Guiana; Pranceacanthus monospecific endemic N+C Brazil, Bolivia?; Pseuderanthemum ?? of 128 pantropical spp native CAM, Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, intro Cuba, Puerto Rico, Leeward & Windward Is, Venezuelan Antilles, Trinidad-Tobago;Psilanthele monospecific endemic Ecuador; Pulchranthus 4 of 4 SAM endemic spp of Colombia, Venezuela, N Brazil, Suriname, French Guiana, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia; Rhombochlamys monospecific endemic Colombia; Ruellia ?? of 361 mostly pantropical spp native CAM, Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Aruba, Antilles (exc Netherlands Antilles), Trinidad-Tobago, SW Caribbean, Galapagos, tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc N Chile), inc 1 sp formerly known as Ulleria endemic to Suriname; Ruspolia 1 of 4 African spp intro Trinidad-Tobago; Salpixantha monospecific endemic Jamaica; Samuelssonia monospecific endemic Haiti; Sanchezia 55 of 55 former Neo endemic spp native Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, N Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, now intro Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Antilles (exc Cayman Is, Netherlands Antilles), Trinidad-Tobago, plus Mexico, Hawaii, Africa and Asia;Sapphoa 2 of 2 spp endemic to Cuba; Schaueria 15 of 15 spp formerly endemic to C+E+S Brazil, now intro to Trinidad-Tobago; Sebastiano-schaueria monospecific endemic SE Brazil; Spathacanthus 3 of 4 Mexico & CAM endemic spp native Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, inc 1 narrow endemic of Costa Rica; Stachyacanthus monospecific endemic C Brazil; Stenandrium ?? of 66 Americas & African spp native Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Leeward & Windward Is, tropical SAM S to C Chile, N Argentina (exc Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, N Chile); Stenostephanus 81 of 81 Mexico & Neo endemic spp native from Mexico S through CAM (exc Belize, El Salvador) to Colombia, Venezuela, N+SE Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia; Streblacanthus 3 of 3 Mexico & N Neo endemic spp native Guatemala, Costa Rica, Panama, Peru, N Brazil; Strobilanthes ?? of 448 S + tropical Asia spp intro Belize, El Salvador Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Windward Is, Venezuelan Antilles, Trinidad-Tobago; Suessenguthia 8 of 8 N SAM endemic spp of N Brazil, Peru, Bolivia;Tessmanniacanthus monospecific endemic Peru; Tetramerium 9 of 30 sub & tropical Americas endemic spp native Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, inc 5 narrow endemics of Peru; Thyrsacanthus 6 of 6 SAM endemic spp native Venezuela, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, N Argentina; Trichanthera 2 of 2 Neo endemic spp of Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, N Brazil, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Ecuador, Peru;Trichosanchezia monospecific endemic Peru; Xantheranthemum monospecific endemic Peru. Avicennioideae: Avicennia 3 of 8 pantropical spp native CAM, Bahamas, Aruba, Turks-Caicos, Antilles, SW Caribbean, Trinidad-Tobago, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, N+E+S Brazil, Uruguay, Ecuador, Peru. Nelsonioideae:Elytraria 11 of 21 pantropical spp native CAM, Cuba, Haiti, Aruba, Trinidad-Tobago, tropical SAM S to Peru, NW Argentina, C+SE Brazil, intro Galapagos, inc 9 narrow endemics of Cuba (6), Haiti (1), Peru (1), Ecuador (1); Nelsonia 1 of 3 Old World Tropics spp intro El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Puerto Rico, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Bolivia, N+C+E Brazil;Staurogyne ?? of 149 pantropical spp native Nicaragua S to Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Suriname, Brazil, Bolivia, Trinidad-Tobago. Thunbergioideae:Mendoncia ?? of 89 Americas & Africa spp native CAM (exc El Salvador), Trinidad-Tobago, tropical SAM S to Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, S Brazil; Thunbergia ?? several of 151 Old World Tropics spp intro Bahamas, Antilles (exc Cayman Is, Netherlands Antilles), CAM (exc Nicaragua), tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc French Guiana, N Chile, Uruguay).
Patagonia Genera Include:
Acanthoideae: Stenandrium 1 of 66 Americas & African spp native in Bio Bio C Chile, also in Buenos Aires Argentina just N of Patagonia.
Additional Information and References
Visit Lyrae’s Dictionary of Botanical Terms to learn the terminology of botanists. Note that if you hover over most of the words in the articles, you can also get definitions from them there.
Willis, Lyrae (Unpublished). Plant Families of North America. This is where all of the family descriptions come from. Below should be most of my references for this, as well as my own personal observations of species in North America.
Canadensys: Acadia University, Université de Montréal Biodiversity Centre, University of Toronto Mississauga, University of British Columbia. http://data.canadensys.net/explorer (accessed 2020 – current)
Delta: Watson, L., and Dallwitz, M.J. (1992+). The Families of Flowering Plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval. Version: 2nd May 2020. delta-intkey.com. Accessed spring through fall of 2020.
Flora of North America. (1993+). https://floranorthamerica.org/Main_Page.
Neotropikey: Milliken, W., Klitgård, B., & Baracat, A. eds. (2009+). Neotropikey: Interactive key and information resources for flowering plants of the Neotropics. www.kew.org/neotropikey.com (accessed 2020 – current).
POWO (2019). Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet; http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/ Retrieved Winter 2020 – present.
USDA, NRCS. 2020. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 2 June 2020). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC, USA; accessed throughout the fall of 2020.
