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1 May, 2026

How to Identify the Asparagaceae Family

Yucca elata the soaptree yucca growing in its native Chihuahuan desert habitat
Yucca elata the soaptree yucca growing in its native Chihuahuan desert habitat.
Page Last Updated May 1, 2026.

Introduction to the Asparagaceae Family

Welcome to the newly expanded Asparagaceae family! This one was a lot of work and fun to put together since my previous descriptions had split the family into several, but APG IV is saying, for now, that they all belong together. Still, because the subfamilies can vary so much, I have kept much of my information below separate to help you identify the subfamilies since the family level is so diverse and hard to characterize at that level.

Common Botanical Description

If you’re new to plant morphology, this guide is a perfect beginner’s description for learning to identify the Asparagaceae family, with no need to know any scientific jargon. Below this section are morphology photos to help you identify the family, followed by pictures of individual species found in North America. But for researchers or those wanting to learn a more in-depth version, refer to the Scientific Botanical Description below the images for highly detailed scientific descriptions and genus-level distribution data.

Leaves and Stems of the Asparagaceae: There is tremendous diversity ranging from small perennial herbs from rhizomes or bulbs to vines, shrubs, and tree-like forms. Leaves vary from scale-like (with photosynthesis occurring in stems instead) to large, but they are often narrow and crowded into basal or terminal rosettes.

Flowers of the Asparagaceae: Flowers are usually rather small but can be showy, and they may appear singly but more often appear in dense spikes or branched inflorescences. They usually contain both male (stamens) and female (ovary, style, stigma) parts in the same flower (bisexual). The flower is made of 6 usually petal-like tepals in 2 whorls, which may be free or partly fused into a tube.

Reproductive Features of the Asparagaceae: There are almost always 6 stamens that are usually free of one another, and there is usually a single terminal style on top of the ovary.

Fruits of the Asparagaceae: Fruits are either fleshy berries or dry capsules that split apart at maturity to release their seeds.

Uses of Asparagaceae

There are numerous cultivated ornamentals from the Agavoideae, Convallarioideae, and Scillioideae subfamilies grown for their pretty flowers or evergreen foliage. Culinary asparagus (Asparagus officinalis) and agave sap for the production of alcohol and syrup are of major economic importance. Many Agave and Yucca species are also used for fibers, mostly locally, but some are used commercially on a small scale.

Ecosystem and Wildlife Values of Asparagaceae

As a diverse family with many species, the Asparagaceae provide significant ecosystem services, especially in arid, coastal, and marginal habitats, providing food (nectar, foliage, and fruits) for various wildlife. They create microhabitats for beneficial insects and pollinators, and many species are drought-tolerant, making them useful for soil stabilization in arid habitats. However, some species can become aggressive and invasive outside their native range and degrade native habitats.

Morphology of Asparagaceae in North America

Learn how to identify the Asparagaceae family with these morphology photos
Learn how to identify the Asparagaceae family with these morphology photos

Morphology of the Agavoideae Subfamily in North America

Learn how to identify the Agavoideae Subfamily of the Asparagaceae family with these morphology photos

Morphology of the Brodiaeoideae Subfamily in North America

Learn how to identify the Brodiaeoideae subfamily of the Asparagaceae family with these morphology photos

Morphology of the Convallarioideae Subfamily in North America

Learn how to identify the Convallarioideae subfamily of the Asparagaceae family with these morphology photos

Some Species of Asparagaceae Found in North America

Agavoideae Subfamily

Agave americana is a well-known Agavoideae member that is often cultivated in xeriscape gardens.

Agave americana—Century Plant

Agave americana is a well-known Asparagaceae member that is often cultivated in xeriscape gardens, which is why this former southern North American endemic (USA and Mexico) is now widely introduced around the world. It is known for its massive basal rosette of huge spiny-edged and spiny-tipped blue-green leaves.

Agave parryi ssp neomexicana is my favorite agave for its spines along its leaves and its very long sharp spiny leaf tips and amazing geometric shapes.

Agave parryi ssp neomexicana—New Mexico Agave

New Mexico agave is my favorite agave by far, with its cool geometric leaf pattern that always looks so perfect and its spiny-edged green or blue-green leaves with long spiny tips. It is a narrow subspecies found in New Mexico, Texas, and northern Mexico in the Chihuahua Desert.

Camassia quamash does not look like most Agavoideae members, more like other Asparagaceae, with its herbaceous leaves and pretty blue-purple flowers.

Camassia quamash—Common Camas

The common cama may not look like most Agavoideae since it’s herbaceous and has showy blue or purple flowers, but when you see it in fruit, they certainly resemble agave capsules. This beauty is native to BC and Alberta, Canada, and the Pacific Northwest in the USA, south to California.

Yucca baccata is typical of the Agavoideae subfamily with its basal rosette of leaves and large inflorescences of flowers.

Yucca baccata—Banana Yucca

Many yuccas have no trunks like this one and instead produce basal groups of leaves with inflorescence stalks coming up from their center. Yucca flowers are typically very large and creamy white, like these. The “banana” part comes from its large, banana-shaped capsules it produces.

Yucca brevifolia the Joshua tree is the world's largest yucca, growing as a small tree with terminal clusters of leaves, which is common in tree forms of the Asparagaceae

Yucca brevifolia—Joshua Tree

Still other yuccas form “trunks” that allow them to get taller, like soap tree yucca, Torrey’s yucca, and this Joshua tree, which is definitely the world’s tallest yucca. It is also becoming increasingly rare in its range thanks to climate change. It is native to California, Nevada, Utah, and Arizona in the USA and also in northwestern Mexico.

Brodiaeoideae Subfamily

Triteleia grandiflora is typical of the Brodiaeoideae subfamily of Asparagaceae with its herbaceous habit, grass-like leaves and umbels of showy purple flowers

Triteleia grandiflora—Largeflower Triteleia

This beautiful herbaceous plant was growing in a moist ditch on the side of the road. Its leaves are grass-like and blended in with the grass it was growing with, but it produces the most gorgeous umbels of tubular purple flowers.

Convallarioideae Subfamily

Dasylirion wheeleri shows the characteristic basal rosette of leaves common in many Asparagaceae, and huge spike-like branched inflorescences of small flowers.

Dasylirion wheeleri—Sotol

This iconic desert species has a dense basal rosette of sword-like leaves and produces massive inflorescences of rather small cream-colored flowers. This is another species in decline due to unethical harvesting, climate change, and very slow growth. It is native to Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas as well as northern Mexico.

Nolina greenei is a grass-like plant with large inflorescences and narrow leaves in basal rosettes.

Nolina greenei—Woodland Beargrass

Don’t let the common name fool you, this clumpy native with grass-like leaves and showy inflorescences of small flowers is mostly found in the plains or very open woodlands. It is a narrow US endemic found only in Colorado, New Mexico, and Oklahoma.

Maianthemum dilatatum shows large, well-developed leaves common in the Convallarioideae subfamily, which are otherwise not common in the Asparagaceae

Maianthemum dilatatum—False Lily of the Valley

This gorgeous plant loves moist forests where it grows as an understory plant and groundcover. It has large heart-shaped leaves and small spike-like racemes of small white flowers. It is native to western North America from Alaska south along the Pacific to California.

Maianthemum racemosum showing its parallel-veined leaves, parallel veins are the most common type seen in the Asparagaceae.

Maianthemum racemosum—False Solomon’s Seal

This is one of the most common forest plants I find in this subfamily, as its native to almost all of Canada, the USA, and northern Mexico. It produces large, alternate leaves with parallel veins and somewhat dense terminal panicles of small white star-shaped flowers.

Polygonatum biflorum is another common forest understory plant, which has bell-shaped flowers and produces small berries.

Polygonatum biflorum—Smooth Solomon’s Seal

The Polygonatum are often confused with Maianthemum because of their leaves, but these have bell-shaped flowers that hang down from the leaf axils beneath the plant instead of in terminal inflorescences. It is native throughout eastern North America.

Scillidoideae Subfamily

Hyacinthoides hispanica is a bulbous geophyte, common in the Scillidoideae subfamily of the Asparagaceae

Hyacinthoides hispanica—Spanish Bluebell

This pretty herbaceous and bulbaceous perennial has a strap-shaped basal rosette of leaves and inflorescences of pretty purple bell flowers. Like most Scillidoideae members, however, it is not native but has escaped cultivation in the northwest and northeast of North America.

Scientific Botanical Description of the Asparagaceae Family

Since the new broader Asparagaceae has been greatly expanded and my previous descriptions covered 4 families, plus one I had not covered, I am keeping the information I have on subfamilies separate. Since the subfamilies are more morphologically distinct, while the family as a whole is not, I feel this allows for better, more useful comparisons than if I were to rewrite it lumped together. So I will begin each section with the traits they have in common, followed by how the major North American subfamilies differ.

Habit & Leaf Form of the Asparagaceae Family

The plants of the Aspargaceae are always perennial when they are herbs, with most coming from rhizomes. Leaves vary in size from minimal to quite large but are always arranged alternately. The lamina is always entire, the margins are almost always entire, and the leaves are mostly sessile and sheathing with free margins. The leaves are mostly parallel-veined and lack cross-venules and stipules.

Agavoideae: These are xerophytic herbs, shrubs, or arborescent pachycaul trees, rarely epiphytic. They may be succulent and typically have basal or terminal aggregations of leaves of variable size that are simple, alternate spiral, flat or terete, and leathery, fleshy, or both. Blades may be borne normally or edgewise to the stem and are lanceolate, linear, or subulate. Lamina margins may be entire or serrated, often sharp-pointed with lateral and terminal spines.

Asparagoideae: Mostly switch-plants that photosynthesize through stems (axillary clusters of cladodes) while the leaves are reduced to small bract-like features or membranous scales, but they are still more or less sheathing. They are perennial herbs from rhizomes, self-supporting or climbing vines, or shrubs.

Brodiaeoideae: Herbs with basal aggregations of linear leaves that may be fleshy and often appear similar to Amaryllidaceae-Allioideae plants, but they never smell of onions and come from fibrous corms rather than bulbs.

Convallarioideae: Mesophytic subfamily of mostly herbs with well-developed leaves, with or without a basal aggregation. Dracaena are also often shrubs or trees. Stems are fibrous and do not break easily at the nodes, and they may come from either rhizomatous or tuberous roots. Leaves are alternate and spiral or distichous, herbaceous or leathery, and petiolate to sessile. Leaves are often lanceolate, oblong, or ovate, and they have varying veination that may be palmately, parallel, or pinnately veined and may also have cross-venules. Leaf bases are cordate, attenuate, cuneate, or oblique. Leaves are flat with entire margins.  

Scilloideae: These are mesophytic herbs with a basal aggregation of leaves (occasionally only two), but they are mostly bulbaceous with only some rhizomatous (Chlorogalum, Schoenolirion). Leaves are usually alternate spiral or alternate distichous when reduced to two. Leaves are simple, with blades normally oriented. The lamina is entire and mostly linear but rarely ovate or orbicular.  

Flowers of the Asparagaceae Family

Most flowers are hermaphrodites, and floral nectaries with secretion from the gynoecium via septal nectaries are virtually always present. The perianth is always made of tepals, which are almost always 6 in number, free or joined, isomerous, and 2-whorled and usually similar in the 2 whorls. Flowers are always 3-merous, and the perigone tube may be present or absent.

Agavoideae: Plants may sometimes be andromonoecious, gynomonoecious, or dioecious. Flowers are aggregated in large, branched terminal panicles that may be scapiflorous or not. Flowers are bracteate, regular to somewhat zygomorphic, pentacyclic, with a petaloid perianth.

Brodiaeoideae: The inflorescence is almost always an umbel, rarely a single flower, and it is terminal and scapiflorous, typically with 2-4 or up to 10 inflorescence bracts. Flowers are regular and typically united into a tube with 6 lobes; they are often purple or bluish-violet in color.

Asparagoideae: Sometimes flowers are monoecious, dioecious, or polygamomonoecious, with female flowers having staminodes. Flowers may be solitary or aggregated in cymes, racemes, or umbels and typically emerge from a spathe-like bract. Flowers are small, regular, and cyclic. A hypogynous disk is absent. The perianth may be sepaloid or petaloid, green, white, or yellow.

Convallarioideae: Flowers are usually aggregated in cymose or racemose inflorescences, sometimes panicles, scapiflorous or not, terminal or axillary, and may appear singly but always lack a spathe. Flowers are small to medium, regular, 3(4)-merous, and pentacyclic. A perigone tube is usually present (campanulate or urceolate). The perianth is petaloid, usually 6 but sometimes 8 (4+4), in white, greenish, or rarely other colors.

Scilloideae: Plants are sometimes polygamomonoecious. Flowers are aggregated in scapiflorous racemose racemes, spikes, and heads. Flowers are bracteate (at least in the lower inflorescence), small to medium in size, usually regular but may be variously irregular, and are pentacyclic. The perigone tube is usually present (usually campanulate, urceolate, or tubular). The perianth is petaloid and may be similar or different in the two whorls, in white, yellow, red, violet, blue, brown, or black.

Androecium of the Asparagaceae Family

There are almost always 6 androecial members, usually 6 fertile stamens, usually diplostemonous, usually free of one another, and usually 2 whorled. Anthers are dorsifixed or basifixed, dehiscing via longitudinal slits, and are usually introrse.

Agavoideae: 6 members are adnate to or free from the perianth. Exclusively fertile stamens or 3 stamens + 3 staminodes; isomerous or diplostemonous. Anthers are always dorsifixed.

Asparagoideae: Exclusively fertile in male and hermaphrodite flowers with stamens adnate to the base of the perianth.

Brodiaeoideae: There may be 6 fertile stamens or 3 alternating with 3 staminodes; all are adnate to the perianth. Anthers are always basifixed.

Convallariodeae: Rarely there are 8 or 4 androecial members instead of the usual 6; they are exclusively fertile stamens, and they are free of the perianth or often are inserted high in the tube. They may be equal or unequal, free from one another, or coherent 1-adelphous in Peliosanthes. Anthers are usually basifixed or dorsifixed (Reineckea).

Scilloideae: Usually 6 in 2 whorls but sometimes reduced to 3 members in 1 whorl (e.g., Albuca). Members may be free or adnate to the tube. The androecium occasionally contains 3 staminodes external to the fertile stamens. Filaments are often broad and flat and may be appendiculate by lobes on either side of the anther. Anthers are dorsifixed (epipeltate).

Gynoecium of the Asparagaceae Family

The gynoecium is virtually always 3-carpeled, isomerous with the perianth, and the pistil is virtually always 3-celled, and the ovary is virtually always 3-locular with axile placentation. There is usually a single terminal style.

Agavoideae: The gynoecium is syncarpous, superior to inferior. Stigmas are wet or dry types, papillate, and Group II, III, or IV types. Ovules 6–50 per locule; anatropous; crassinucellate.

Asparagoideae: The gynoecium is synstylovarious to syncarpous and superior. The style is often rather short, and a stylar canal is present. Stigmas are of the wet or dry type. Ovules 2–12 per locule; they are non-arillate, crassinucellate, and hemianatropous, anatropous, or orthotropous.

Brodiaeoideae: The ovary is always superior.

Convallarioideae: There may sometimes be 4 carpels, 4-celled pistils, and 4-locular ovaries, but these are rare. The gynoecium is syncarpous, superior to inferior, and may or may not be stylate with a stylar canal present. Stigma 1, capitate or lobulate, dry type, and papillate. Placentation may be basal, axile, or apical with 2-4 ovules per locule; anatropous to campylotropous; and mostly crassinucellate or rarely pseudocrassinucellate.

Scillioideae: The gynoecium is syncarpous and superior and may be stylate or not. When present, styles are attenuate from the ovary or from a depression at the top of the ovary; the stylar canal is present. Stigmas of 1 or 3, wet or dry type, and papillate. Ovules 2–50 per locule, usually non-arillate (except in Lachenalia), anatropous, bitegmic, and crassinucellate or pseudocrassinucellate.

Fruit of the Asparagaceae Family

The fruits may be dehiscent capsules (always Scillioideae and Brodiaeoideae) or indehiscent berries (always Asparagoideae, usually Convallarioideae). Seeds are always endospermic and oily, and the testa is almost always encrusted with phytomelan in Agavoideae, Brodiaeoideae, and Scillioideae but not in Convallarioideae (unsure about Asparagoideae).

Taxonomy of the Asparagaceae Family

There are now approximately 2,595 to 2,900 species in 153 genera of the Asparagaceae family, which is part of the Asparagales order of non-commelinid monocots. Not that long ago, the Asparagaceae family had only 2 genera, but it has been expanded to include 7 subfamilies described below. This is one of those families that, as a whole, are difficult to characterize.

  1. Aphyllanthoideae—this tiny subfamily consists of a single species endemic to the western Mediterranean. It is easy to recognize because it has tufts of photosynthetic, scapose inflorescences and scarious, non-photosynthetic leaves at their bases.
  2. Agavoideae—formerly the Agavaceae—has about 25 genera and 637 species pantropical, subtropical, and rarely southern temperate, with the majority found in SW North America. They are herbs, shrubs, or arborescent, with a basal aggregation of leaves and flowers in large, much-branched panicles.
  3. Brodiaeoideae is a small subfamily of about 12 genera and 62 species found in SW North America from British Columbia, Canada, south to Guatemala. They look very similar to wild onions with umbels of small flowers and a superior ovary, but they have corms and do not smell of onions.
  4. Scilloideae is a large subfamily of about 996 species in 37 genera found in Europe, the Middle East, Africa, and southwest Asia, with one genus found in South America. They are bulbous geophytes with scapose inflorescences.
  5. Lomandroideae is a subfamily of approximately 200 species in 12 genera that are mostly Australian, but with some also in Asia, Madagascar, and South America. They are mostly tough perennial herbs, with some shrubs.
  6. Asparagoideae only contains 2 genera but over 220 species found mostly in Africa, Europe, and Asia but also Australia and the Pacific Islands and one genus native to Mexico. They are herbs or shrubs that often climb and are easy to recognize by their very reduced leaves using photosynthetic stems (cladodes and/or phylloclades) instead.
  7. Convallarioideae is a large subfamily of 605 species in 26 genera found in North America, Central America, Africa, Europe, Asia, and northern Australia. They can usually be differentiated fairly easily from the rest of the family by being mostly herbs (except Dracaena, which may also be shrubs or trees) and having well-developed leaves and inflorescences that are typically not scapiflorous.

Genera of the Asparagaceae Family:

As the taxonomy of this family is still under debate, a few genera are currently listed in more than one subfamily because I (and APG IV) am uncertain where to place them. This will be updated when I have more information.

Agavoideae: Agave (~230), Anemarrhena (1), Anthericum (8), Behnia (1), Beschorneria (8), Camassia (6), Chlorogalum (5), Chlorophytum (194), Diamena (1), Diora (1), Echeandia (85), Echinoagave (12), Furcraea (26), Hagenbachia (6), Hastingsia (4), Herreria (8), Herreriopsis (1), Hesperaloe (8), Hesperocallis (1), Hesperoyucca (2), Hosta (30), Leucocrinum (1), Paleoagave (1), Paraagave (1), Paradisea (2), Schoenolirion (3), Yucca (54).

Aphyllanthoideae: Monospecific Aphyllanthes monspeliensis (W Mediterranean). 

Asparagoideae: Asparagus (215), Hemiphylacus (5).

Brodiaeoideae: Androstephium (2), Bessera (3), Bloomeria (3), Brodiaea (19), Dandya (4), Dichelostemma (6), Milla (11), Muilla (4), Petronymphe (1), Triteleia (18), Triteleiopsis (1).

Convallarioideae: Aspidistra (147), Beaucarnea (12), Comospermum (1), Convallaria (4), Danae (1), Dasylirion (23), Disporopsis (10), Dracaena (177), Eriospermum (119), Heteropolygonatum (10), Liriope (7), Maianthemum (40), Nolina (30), Ophiopogon (77), Peliosanthes (38), Polygonatum (80), Reineckea (1), Rohdea (19), Ruscus (7), Semele (3), Speirantha (1), Theropogon (1), Tupistra (26). 

Lomandroideae: Acanthocarpus (7), Arthropodium (9), Chamaexeros (4), Cordyline (26), Eustrephus (1), Laxmannia (15), Lomandra (53), Romnalda (4), Sowerbaea (5), Thysanotus (51), Trichopetalum (??).

Scilloideae: Albuca (133), Alrawia (2), Bellevalia (74), Bowiea (2), Brimeura (3), Chionodoxa (?), Chlorogalum (also in Agavoideae?), Daubenya (8), Dipcadi (43), Drimia (18), Eucomis (13), Hastingsia (also in Agavoideae?), Hesperocallis (also in Agavoideae?), Hooveria (2), Hyacinthella (17), Hyacinthoides (13), Hyacinthus (4), Lachenalia (135), Ledebouria (61), Massonia (29), Merwilla (3), Muscari (~85), Namophila (1), Occultia (?), Ornithogalum (98), Oziroe (5), Pseudolachenalia (?), Pseudoprospero (1), Puschkinia (3), Schizocarphus (1), Scilla (89), Spetaea (1), Spirophyllos (1), Veltheimia (2); Zingela (?).

Key Differences From Similar Families

The Brodiaeoideae are similar to the Amaryllidaceae-Allioideae with scapose, umbellate inflorescences of small flowers, but in the Brodiaeoideae they come from fibrous corms, not bulbs; they do not smell of onions; and they have 4+ inflorescence bracts instead of 3.

Distribution of the Asparagaceae

Under this broader definition, the Asparagaceae are temperate, subtropical, and pantropical and are especially widespread in the Old World. Still, they are found throughout the Americas from Canada south through the USA, Mexico, Central America, and South America.

Distribution of the Asparagaceae in the Americas

Canadian Genera Include:

Agavoideae: Camassia 3 spp. native to BC, AB, and ON; Hosta 1 spp. intro to QC; Yucca 3 spp. native to AB and intro in ON, SK. Asparagoideae: Asparagus 1 sp. intro in all southern provinces except Labrador. Brodiaeoideae: Brodiaea 1 sp. native to BC; Triteleia 2 spp. native to BC. Convallarioideae: Convallaria 1 sp intro ON, QC, SK?, NL Island?; Maianthemum 6 spp. native in all of Canada, including the Arctic; Polygonatum 3 spp. native SK, MB, ON, QC, NB, NS. Scilloideae: Hyacinthoides 3 spp. intro to BC, ON, NL (exc. Labrador); Muscari 3 spp. intro to BC, ON, NL (exc. Labrador); Ornithogalum 2 spp. intro BC, ON, QC, NB, NS, NL Island; Puschkinia 1 sp. intro ON; Scilla 3 spp. intro BC, QC, ON, NB.

USA Genera Include:

Agavoideae: Agave 26 spp. native and intro CA, NV, UT, AZ, NM, TX, LA, FL, and intro HI plus former Manfreda 5 spp. native TX, OK, LA, AR, MO, IL, IN, OH, VA, MD, KY, TN, MS, AL, GA, FL, SC, NC; Camassia 6 spp. native WA, OR, CA, NV, UT, ID, MT, WY, TX, OK, KS, IA, MO, AR, LA, WI, IL, IN, OH, MI, PA, MD, WV, VA, KY, TN, MS, AL, GA, SC, NC; Chlorogalum 5 of 5 endemic spp. native OR, CA; Chlorophytum 2 spp. intro to CA, FL, GA; Echeandia 4 spp. native to AZ, NM, and TX; Furcraea 2 spp. native and intro FL and intro HI; Hastingsia 4 of 4 endemics to OR, CA; Hesperaloe 2 spp. native to TX; Hesperocallis monospecific NAM endemic native in CA, NV, and AZ; Hesperoyucca 2 spp. inc. 1 endemic native to CA and AZ; Hosta 4 spp. intro to NE states; Leucocrinum monospecific US endemic to most of W USA exc. WA, OK, and TX; Schoenolirion 3 of 3 spp. endemic to TX, LA, AR, TN, NC, SC, AL, GA, FL; Yucca 29 spp. native in most of the USA, except WA, OR, ID, MN, VT, NH, and ME. Asparagoideae: Asparagus 4 spp. intro in all of the USA, inc. HI. Brodiaeoideae: Androstephium 2 SW USA endemic spp. native to CA, NV, UT, AZ, WY, CO, NM, KS, OK, TX; Bloomeria 2 spp. native, including 1 endemic to CA; Brodiaea 16 spp. native, including many endemics to WA, OR, CA; Dichelostemma 6 W USA endemic spp. native to WA, OR, CA; Milla 1 sp. native to AZ, NM, TX; Muilla 4 spp. native, including 3 endemics of CA, NV, NM; Triteleia 15 spp. native to WA, OR, CA, NV, AZ, UT, CO, WY, ID, MT; Triteleiopsis 1 sp. native to AZ. Convallarioideae: Aspidistra 1? sp intro AL, FL; Convallaria 2 spp native and intro in most of E USA from MN S to LA and all E of that exc LA, MS, FL, SC, and inc KS, MT, UT, WA, OR; Dasylirion 4 spp native to AZ, NM, TX; Liriope 2 spp intro IL, VA, MD, LA, MS, AL, GA, FL, SC; Maianthemum 5 spp. native throughout entire USA, including AK; Nolina 14 spp. native to CA, NV, AZ, NM, CO, OK, TX, FL, GA, and SC, inc. 7 endemics; Ophiopogon 1 sp. intro in AR; Polygonatum 4 spp. native and intro in most of the USA except WA, OR, CA, ID, NV, UT, and CO; Sanseviera (=Dracaena) 2 spp. intro FL. Scilloideae: Hooveria 2 spp. inc. 1 endemic native to CA; Hyacinthoides 3 spp. intro WA, OR, IN, OH, KY, TN, NC, VA, MD, DE, NJ, PA, NY, CT; Hyacinthus 1 sp intro CA, UT, TX, KY, VA, PA; Muscari 4 spp. introduced in much of the USA, except ID, MT, WY, NV, AZ, ND, SD, NE, OK, IA, ME; Ornithogalum 5 spp. introduced in most of the USA, except MT, WY, CO, NM, NV, AZ; Scilla 1 sp. intro UT, MN, IA, MO, WI, IL, KY, IN, OH, MI, PA, NJ, DE, NY, CT, NH. 

Mexico Genera Include:

Agavoideae: Agave (inc. Manfreda, Polianthes, Prochnyanthes) ~169 spp. native, inc. ~72 endemics, widespread throughout all of Mexico; Beschorneria 8 spp. native to Chp, Gto, Hgo, Mex, NL, Pue, Oax, SLP, Tam; Chlorophytum 1 sp. intro, scattered throughout most of Mexico exc. Cmp, Coa, Son; Echeandia ?? spp. native throughout all of Mexico; Echinoagave 12 of 12 spp. endemic to N, C, and W Mexico; Furcraea 12 spp. native, inc. 4 endemics tropical S Mexico, Chp, Gro, Mch, Mex, Oax, Pue, QR, Tam, Ver, Yuc; Hesperaloe 7 spp. native Coa, NL, SLP, Son, Tam; Hesperocallis monospecific NAM endemic native in NW Mexico; Hesperoyucca 1 sp. native Ags, BC, BCS, Cd Mex, Dgo, Gto, Hgo, Pue; Paleoagave monospecific endemic of NW Mexico; Paraagave monospecific endemic of Mexico Gulf and SW; Yucca ~ ~35-40 spp. inc. at least 13 endemics widespread throughout Mexico. Asparagoideae: Asparagus 5 spp. intro most of Mexico exc. N Son, Coa, Tam; Hemiphylacus 5 Mexican endemic spp. of Ags, Coa, Gto, NL, Oax, Pue, Qro, SLP. Brodiaeoideae: Bessera 3 spp. endemic to Mexico, B. elegans C + S Mexico, B. tenuiflora BC, BCS, B. tuitensis Jal; Bloomeria 2 spp. native to N BC; Brodiaea 2 spp. native to N BC; Dandya 4 endemic spp. of NE Mexico; Dichelostemma 1 sp. native to BC, BCS, W Chi, N Son; Milla 10 spp. native, including 9 endemic to Coa, Gro, Mor, NL, Oax, Pue, SLP, and the other sp. widespread in S USA throughout Mexico S to Honduras; Muilla 1 sp. native to N BC; Petronymphe 2 endemic spp. of SW Mexico; Triteleia 1? sp. native to NW Mexico; Triteleiopsis 1 sp. native to BC, BCS, and Son. Convallarioideae: Aspidistra 1? sp. intro NW, SW, and NW Gulf of Mexico; Beaucarnea # spp. native throughout Mexico exc. NW; Dasylirion 23 spp., mostly endemics native to most of Mexico exc. the tropical south; Dracaena 1 of 2 Americas spp native to S Mexico; Liriope 2 spp. intro Sin, Cd Mex, Mor, Ver, Chp; Maianthemum 9 spp. native Chi, Chp, Dgo, Oax, Ver; Nolina 21 spp. native to most of Mexico except the far south, inc. 13 endemics; Ophiopogon 1 sp. Cd Mex, Pue, Zac; Polygonatum 2 spp Son, Dgo, Ver; Sansevieria (=Dracaena) 2 spp. intro most of Mexico exc. N deserts of BC, Coa, and Son. Lomandroideae: Cordyline ? spp. intro throughout S Mexico. Scilloideae: Albuca 1 sp. intro Pue; Hooveria 1 sp. native to NW Mexico; Ledebouria 1 sp. intro Gto, Cd, Mex, Ver, Oax, Yuc; Muscari (Leopoldia) 1 sp intro Sin, Ver.

Neotropical Genera Include:

Agavoideae: Agave over 100 spp., mostly dry and arid Americas, some tropical SAM; Beschorneria 8 spp., mostly Mexico, also dry Guatemala and Honduras; Diamena is a monospecific endemic of Peru; Diora is a monospecific endemic of Peru; Echeandia ?? spp. native to Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, NW Argentina; Furcraea 25 extant spp. native to Mexico, Caribbean, CAM, and N. SAM; Hagenbachia 6 of 6 neo-endemics in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Panama, and Paraguay; Herreria has 8 spp. SAM endemics are native to Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, Brazil, Bolivia, and C. Chile; Yucca 40-50 spp. native to hot, arid Americas, the Antilles, and south to Guatemala in CAM. Asparagoideae: Asparagus # spp. intro Brazil, Antilles, Bermuda, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Honduras, Argentina, Uruguay, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Galápagos. Brodiaeoideae: Milla 1 sp. native to Guatemala, Honduras. Convallarioideae: Beaucarnea 12 spp. endemic from NE Mexico S through Belize, El Salvador, Honduras, Guatemala, and Nicaragua; Dracaena 1 of 2 Americas spp endemic to Cuba; Maianthemum 8 spp native Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica; absent SAM; Ophiopogon 1 sp. intro in NE Argentina. Lomandroideae: Cordyline 1 neoendemic species native to S and SE Brazil, Bolivia, N Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay, with most species in the Pacific Islands and Australia; Trichopetalum 1 narrow endemic of C Chile. Scilloideae: Ledebouria 1 sp. intro Costa Rica, Puerto Rico, Ecuador, Bolivia; Oziroe 5 SAM endemic spp. native to Peru, Bolivia, and Chile S to C Chile in Maule, Argentina.

Patagonia Genera Include:

Agavoideae: Herreria 1 sp. native to Bio Bio, Chile, in the N end of the region. Lomandroideae:Trichopetalum 1-2 spp., both narrow endemics, one of Nequem, Argentina, and 1 of C Chile, which may also be in the temperate zone. Asparagoideae: Asparagus # spp. intro S Argentina. Scilloideae: Oziroe ?? may be present.

Additional Information and References

  • Visit Lyrae’s Dictionary of Botanical Terms to learn the terminology of botanists. Note that if you hover over most of the words in the articles, you can also get definitions from them there.
  • Willis, Lyrae (Unpublished). Plant Families of North America. This is where all of the family descriptions come from. Below should be most of my references for this, along with my own personal observations throughout North America.
  • Canadensys: Acadia University, Université de Montréal Biodiversity Centre, University of Toronto Mississauga, University of British Columbia. http://data.canadensys.net/explorer (accessed 2020 – current)
  • FNA (1993+). Flora of North America. https://floranorthamerica.org/Main_Page. Accessed 2022-current.
  • GBIF.org (2020+), GBIF Home Page. Available from: https://www.gbif.org
  • iNaturalist.org (2020+). https://www.inaturalist.org/. Accessed 2020-current.
  • Naturalista: CONABIO http://www.naturalista.mx (Accessed 2020–current).
  • Neotropikey: Milliken, W., Klitgård, B., & Baracat, A. eds. (2009+). Neotropikey: Interactive key and information resources for flowering plants of the Neotropics. www.kew.org/neotropikey.com (accessed 2020 – current).
  • Patagonia Wildflowers: Wildflower Identification Site. https://patagoniawildflowers.org/ Accessed throughout the fall of 2020.
  • POWO (2019+). Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet: http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/
  • Stevens, P. F. (2001+). Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 14, July 2017 [more or less continuously updated since]. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/
  • USDA, NRCS. 2020. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 2 June 2020). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC, USA; Accessed 2020-present.
  • Watson, L., and Dallwitz, M.J. (1992+). The Families of Flowering Plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval. Version: 2nd May 2020. delta-intkey.com. Accessed spring through fall of 2020.
  • WFO (2022): World Flora Online. Published on the Internet: http://www.worldfloraonline.org. Accessed Spring 2022 – current

My Current Plant Family Education Fundraiser

I am currently seeking funding to expand my website and SEO capabilities as I keep adding new families, and I am also looking to invest in a new macro lens, as I will soon be adding floral dissections to some of the families. Donate to support native plant education using the GoFundMe link, also at the bottom of the page.

Copyright Information

The information and the photos on this site are free to use for educational purposes, with proper attribution. For other uses, please contact me first.

You can cite this site as Willis, Lyrae (2020+). Lyrae’s Nature Blog – Plant Families of North America. https://lyraenatureblog.com/

1 May, 2026

30 Apr, 2026

How to Identify the Amaryllidaceae Family

Hymenocallis liriosme a native Amaryllidaceae of the southeastern USA.
Hymenocallis liriosme is a native Amaryllidaceae of the southeastern USA.
Page Last Updated May 16, 2026.

Introduction to the Amaryllidaceae Family

The Amaryllidaceae family is a gorgeous family of often showy flowers, making them popular in gardens and the cut flower industry. My first experience with the family is with wild onion (Allium) species, which produce small umbels of lovely flowers and often smell like the onions we eat due to the presence of sulfide compounds. These are common in temperate climates, and when I went further south I got to explore the more large-flowered species of the Amarylidoideae subfamily, which are virtually all worthy of a spot in your native garden.

Common Botanical Description

If you’re new to plant morphology, this guide is a perfect beginner’s description for learning to identify the Amaryllidaceae family, with no need to know any scientific jargon. Below this section are morphology photos to help you identify the family, followed by pictures of individual species found in North America. But for researchers or those wanting to learn a more in-depth version, refer to the Scientific Botanical Description below the images for highly detailed scientific descriptions and genus-level distribution data.

Leaves and Stems of the Amaryllidaceae: This is a family of mostly herbaceous bulbs, although some genera have rhizomes (thick roots). They usually have a grouping of leaves from their base, often lacking stems altogether, with leaves that are simple and often flat, rounded, or angular, and may be onion-scented in the onion subfamily.

Flowers of the Amaryllidaceae: Flowers always contain both male (stamens) and female (ovary, stigma, style) parts in the same flower (bisexual). Flowers may appear on their own or grouped in various inflorescences, often umbel-like, on leafless stalks (scapes), often enclosed in spathe-like bracts at the base. Flowers are made of 6 petal-like tepals in 2 whorls, but some have an extra inner whorl (corona) that, and they may come in a wide range of colors.

Reproductive Features of the Amaryllidaceae: There are nearly always 6 stamens in 2 whorls (3+3), but sometimes they are fused at the base or into a tube, and they may or may not have appendages at their base. The ovary almost always has 3 chambers (locules) with a single usually terminal style.

Fruits of the Amaryllidaceae: Fruits are nearly always dry capsules that split apart when mature, but rarely it may be a berry.

Uses of Amaryllidaceae 

There are numerous cultivated species in this family for their often large and showy colorful flowers, including common garden plants and cut flowers like daffodils, snowdrops, numerous lily-like plants, and others from the Amaryllis, Crinum, Sternbergia, Nerine, and Clivia genera. There are also several vegetables from the Allioideae subfamily, including onions, chives, leeks, and garlic. A small number of species are used medicinally, mostly in indigenous medicines.

Ecosystem and Wildlife Values of Amaryllidaceae

The Amaryllidaceae often provide food and habitat for insects, pollinators, and small animals. Animals will feed on the bulbous roots while countless pollinators flock to the floral nectaries found in their flowers.

Many species are also known for their ecological resilience in dry or harsh environments. in this family are renowned for their ecological resilience in dry or challenging environments and for producing specialized compounds that serve both ecological and medicinal functions.

Morphology of Amaryllidaceae in North America

Learn how to identify the Amaryllidaceae family with morphology photos
Learn how to identify the Amaryllidaceae family with morphology photos

Some Species of Amaryllidaceae Found in North America

Allioideae Subfamily

Allium drummondii—Drummond’s Onion

This bulb-forming perennial smells mildly of onion and produces pretty umbels of pink or white flowers every spring. It is a very common native, considered invasive in some areas, especially in Texas, where it is very abundant. However, it is native to the south-central United States (including Texas) and south into northeastern Mexico.

Allium textile—Textile Onion

This lovely wild onion produces egg-shaped bulbs and a leafless scape up to 40 cm tall with bell-shaped flowers with yellow anthers and pollen. It is native to the Canadian prairies (AB, SK, MB) and south through the plains and Rocky Mountain region as far south as northern New Mexico.

Allium vineale—Wild Garlic

This one is easy to identify, as it smells strongly of garlic, and it produces a unique inflorescence of bulbils rather than flowers (no to few flowers) that often start growing while still attached, like this one in the photo. It is native to Europe and Africa and is becoming invasive in North America.

Nothoscordum bivalve—Crow Poison

This bulbous perennial produces 1 to 4 narrow leaves up to 30 cm long with an umbel of 3-6 flowers with whitish tepals with a dark midvein; it does not smell of garlic or onion. It is native to the southeastern USA, Mexico, and South America.

Amaryllidoideae Subfamily

Hymenocallis liriosme a native Amaryllidaceae of the southeastern USA.

Hymenocallis liriosme—Texas Spider-Lily

This beautiful native produces wide, flat, strappy leaves and few-flowered umbels with large white flowers with conspicuous long, skinny tepals and a conspicuous yellow-green ‘eye’ in the center. It is endemic to the southeastern USA.

Narcissus jonquilla—Rush Daffodil

This is one of several daffodil species that have been introduced to North America; this one was growing in a forest in Virginia, USA. Daffodils are easily recognized by their often very large and usually yellow corona in the center surrounding the reproductive parts of the flower.

Scientific Botanical Description of the Amaryllidaceae Family

Habit & Leaf Form of the Amaryllidaceae Family

The Amaryllidaceae are a family of mostly geophyte herbs, occasionally epiphytes or aquatics, that may be herbaceous or succulent, often deciduous. Most of the family is bulbous, a key characteristic, but some are rhizomatous (Agapanthus, Clivia, and Scadoxus), and some may appear transitional between the two. They are perennials that usually (but not always) have a basal aggregation of leaves. Hydrophytes are rooted and have their leaves submerged. Most others are mesophytic, but xerophytic herbs are also seen.

Leaves are mostly alternate distichous but can be spiral (e.g., Crinum), sessile (usually), or nearly petiolate. They are always sheathing, typically with free margins. Leaves are simple, entire, linear, lanceolate, oblong, ovate, or orbicular and may be flat, rolled, terete, or angular. In Allioideae, they are often onion-scented due to allylic sulfide compounds. Leaves are parallel veined and never have cross-venules. Lamina margins are entire. Leaf development is graminaceous. Stomata are present and anomocytic. Mesophyll, often with mucilage cells and crystal raphides, may be laticiferous in Allioideae.

Flowers of the Amaryllidaceae Family

Plants of the Amaryllidaceae family are always hermaphrodites with floral nectaries, mostly from the gynoecium from septal nectaries; pollination is mostly entomophilous. Flowers may be solitary or aggregated in condensed cymes, umbels, umbellate helicoid cymes (esp. Allioideae), or heads (by condensation). Inflorescences are scapiflorous, usually with involucral bracts (mostly with 2 (1–8), typically spathe-like, free or connate scales).

Flowers are actinomorphic to very irregular and somewhat zygomorphic, 3-merous, and tetracyclic or pentacyclic. The perigone tube may be present (short to long) or absent. The perianth is made of 6 tepals, free to joined into a floral tube at the base; 2 whorled (3+3 but often with a conspicuous corona-like extra inner whorl); isomerous; petaloid; similar in the two whorls; green, green to white, white, cream, yellow, red, pink, purple, brown, or various combinations; blue or violet sometimes in Allioideae. Tepal apex trichomes (TAT) present in some genera.

Androecium of the Amaryllidaceae Family

There are nearly always 6 (3-18) androecial members in 2 whorls (3+3), except for Gethyllis with 9-18 stamens. They are free of the perianth or adnate to the base of the tube or tepals (always adnate in Allioideae); they are mostly free of one another, but they may be coherent, 1-adelphous, or basally connate (Allium). The androecium is almost always exclusively fertile stamens; they are isomerous with the perianth (mostly Allioideae) or otherwise nearly always diplostemonous, alterniperianth, or occasionally opposiperianth in Allioideae. Stamens have filaments flat in Allioideae and are often appendiculate in Amarylidoideae with connate filaments sometimes expanded to form a staminal corona. Anthers are nearly always dorsifixed, usually versatile, dehiscing via longitudinal slits or pores, and usually introrse or sometimes latrorse (Crinum).

Gynoecium of the Amaryllidaceae Family

The gynoecium is always 3-carpeled, isomerous with the perianth; the pistil is usually 3-celled (rarely 1). The gynoecium is mostly syncarpous (rarely synstylovarous?) and mostly inferior in Amarylidoideae and always superior in Allioideae. The ovary is almost always 3-locular with one terminal (Amaryllidoideae) or nearly gynobasic (sometimes Allioideae) style. There may be 1 or 3 stigmas; 1–3 lobed; capitate (always?), dry (mostly), or wet types (some); and papillate. Placentation is unilocular when basal (Calostemma) or parietal or when trilocular (usually) it is axile (always in Allioideae) or basal (rarely). Ovules 1-50 per locule; non-arillate; anatropous or usually campylotropous in Allioideae; without integuments (rarely), unitegmic or bitegmic (usually); crassinucellate or pseudocrassinucellate.  

Fruit of the Amaryllidaceae Family

The fruits are mostly non-fleshy dehiscent capsules or rarely a fleshy indehiscent berry. Seeds are endospermic and oily but never contain starch and may be winged (e.g., Agapanthus) or not. Allioideae testae are encrusted with black phytomelan.

Taxonomy of the Amaryllidaceae Family

The Amaryllidaceae is a family with 1,605 species in 73 genera of the Asparagales order of non-commelinid monocots. It was and occasionally may still be found included in the Liliaceae family, but molecular phylogenetics does not support this classification. Furthermore, sometimes the Allioideae is separated, but under the current description it is a subfamily, and we have included it here. The Amaryllidaceae currently has 3 accepted subfamilies:

  1. Agapanthoideae is a small family of 1 genus and 8 species from South Africa. They are robust rhizomatous herbs with fleshy two-ranked leaves and scapose umbellate inflorescences of mostly large blue flowers.
  2. Allioideae is a large subfamily (the former onion family) of 795 species, almost entirely in the Northern Hemisphere, from cold temperate to subtropical climates. They are characterized by being bulbous or rhizomatous perennials with a characteristic onion odor from sulfur compounds, spiral leaves with closed sheaths, and laticifers.
  3. Amaryllidoideae is the largest subfamily, with 900 species in 75 genera; they are mostly tropical, especially in South America and Africa. They are mostly perennial bulbous geophytes with strap-shaped leaves and showy flowers.

Genera of the Amaryllidaceae Family:

Agapanthoideae: Agapanthus (8).

Allioideae: Allium (970-1112), Atacamallium (1), Beauverdia (? or syn. Nothoscordum), Gilliesia (13), Ipheion (3), Latace (2), Leucocoryne (48), Miersia (11), Nothoscordum (94), Schickendantziella (1), Solaria (6? or syn. Gilliesia), Speea (2? or syn. Miersia), Trichlora (4), Tristagma (17), Tulbaghia (28).

Amaryllidoideae: Amaryllis (2), Ammocharis (7), Boophone (2), Brunsvigia (19), Calostemma (3), Cearanthes (1), Chlidanthus (5), Clinanthus (24), Clivia (6), Crinum (116), Crossyne (2), Cryptostephanus (3), Cyrtanthus (59), Eremolirion (1 or syn. Paposoa), Eucrosia (6), Eustephia (6), Galanthus (25), Gethyllis (31), Griffinia (23), Haemanthus (24), Hannonia (1), Hessea (14), Hieronymiella (11), Hippeastrum (116), Hymenocallis (67), Ismene (11), Lapiedra (1), Leptochiton (2), Leucojum (3?), Lycoris (25), Mathieua (1), Narcissus (76), Nerine (25), Pamianthe (3), Pancratium (24), Paposoa (1), Paramongaia (5), Phaedranassa (11), Phycella (~7), Placea (4-6, sometimes inc. in Phycella), Plagiolirion (1), Proiphys (5), Pucara (1), Pyrolirion (8), Rauhia (5), Rhodolirium (2), Scadoxus (9), Shoubiaonia (1), Stenomesson (19), Sternbergia (8), Strumaria (29), Traubia (1), Ungernia (10), Urceolina (29), Vagaria (2), Worsleya (1), Zephyranthes (192).

Key Differences From Similar Families

This family can be confused with other plants with storage organs, including the Iridaceae, which always has 3 stamens instead of 6. It can also be confused with some Liliaceae, which also have 6 stamens and a superior ovary, which could have it confused with some Allioideae, but Liliaceae often do not have a basal aggregation of leaves, while most Allioideae do.

Distribution of Amaryllidaceae

The Amaryllidaceae family is widespread but mostly paleotropical and neotropical, with some subtropical and temperate (especially in the Allioideae). They are nearly cosmopolitan. In the Americas this family is found in Canada (including the Arctic), the USA, south through Mexico, the Antilles, Central America, and South America to the southernmost region.

Distribution of Amaryllidaceae in the Americas

Canadian Genera Include:

Allioideae: Allium 17 spp. native to all of Canada, including Arctic, exc PE. Amaryllidoideae: Galanthus 2 spp. intro ON, NB?, and NL Island?; Leucojum 1 sp. intro ON, NS; Narcissus 3 spp. intro BC, ON, ephemeral NB, QC, and NL Island?

USA Genera Include:

Agapanthoideae: Agapanthus 1 sp. intro to CA. Allioideae: Allium 103 spp. native and intro in all of USA, inc. AK; Ipheion 1 sp. intro to OR, CA, TX, AL, and VA; Nothoscordum 4 spp. native to most of S half of USA from AZ E to NJ and all states S exc. NV, UT, CO, PA, NJ, WV, MD, and DE, and intro in CA; Tristagma 1 sp. intro to OR, CA, TX, OK, AR, LA, MS, AL, GA, FL, SC, NC, VA. Amaryllidoideae: Amaryllis 1 sp. intro to CA, LA; Cooperia 5 spp. native NM, TX, OK, KS, AR, LA, MS, AL, FL, may now be syn. of Zephyranthes; Crinum 4 spp. native and intro TX, AR, LA, MS, AL, GA, FL, SC, NC; Galanthus 2 spp. intro WA, UT, NC, VA, MD, DE, PA, NJ, OH, NY, RI, MA; Hippeastrum 4 spp. intro FL, TX, AL, and HI; Hymenocallis 17 spp. native and intro. in TX, OK, MO, AR, LA, MS, AL, GA, FL, SC, NC, TN, KY, IL, IN, includes at least 3 endemics; Leucojum 2 spp. intro in OR, CA, TX, LA, AR, MO, MS, AL, FL, SC, NC, TN, KY, IL, IN, OH, PA, VA, MD, DE, NY, CT, MA, ME; Lycoris 2 spp. intro in IL, OH, LA, MS, AL, TN, FL, SC, NC; Narcissus 11 spp. intro in most of the E USA and coastal W exc. NV, AZ, NM, ID, MT, WY, CO, ND, SD, NE, KS, OK, MN, IA; Pancratium 1 sp. intro to CA; Sternbergia 1 sp. intro VA; Zephyranthes 12 spp. native (inc Habranthus) and intro. in AZ, NM, TX, LA, MS, AL, GA, FL, SC, NC, VA, MD; intro. in HI.

Mexico Genera Include:

Agapanthoideae: Agapanthus 1 sp. intro Nay E to Tam S to Chp, plus NL and Yuc. Allioideae: Allium 31 spp. native and intro throughout Mexico; Ipheion 1 sp. intro Nay; Nothoscordum 2 spp. native to most of Mexico, exc. Yuc and QR; Tulbaghia 1 sp. intro to Chp, Cd Mex, Gto, Mch, and NL. Amaryllidoideae: Amaryllis 1 sp. intro Chp, Gto, Ver, Yuc; Clivia 1 sp. intro to SW+C+SE Mexico; Crinum 6 spp. native to SW+SE Mexico and intro elsewhere; Hippeastrum 1-2 spp. intro to SW+SE+C Mexico; Hymenocallis 34 spp. native, inc. 30 endemics, native throughout all of Mexico; Ismene 1 sp. intro Chp, Tam; Scadoxus 1 sp. intro Gto, Oax, Ver; Urceolina 1 sp. intro Dgo S to Chp; Zephyranthes ~30 spp. native, inc. 6 endemic, widespread throughout all of Mexico.

Neotropical Genera Include:

Allioideae: Allium ~3 spp., including 1 native to Guatemala and Honduras and 1-2 spp. intro to the Greater Antilles, Colombia, Ecuador, C Chile, and N Argentina; Atacamallium monospecific endemic to the Atacama Desert of N Chile; Gilliesia 13 spp. in C Chile and NW+S Argentina, most are endemic to Chile; Ipheion 3 spp. originally endemic to NE Argentina, Uruguay, and S Brazil; Latace 2 spp. narrow endemic genera of N+C Chile and NW Argentina; Leucocoryne 48 spp. narrow endemic genera of N+C Chile; Miersia 11 spp. neoendemic genera of Bolivia and C Chile; Nothoscordium ~30 spp. native to Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, Chile, Bolivia, and C+E Brazil and intro Jamaica; Schickendantziella is a monospecific endemic of Tucumán, Argentina + Bolivia; Speea 2 spp. endemic in Chile, but s/t as syn. of Miersa; Trichlora 4 spp. narrow endemic genera of Peru; Tristagma 17 spp. native to in Peru, C+S Chile, and NW+S Argentina. Amaryllidoideae: Amaryllis 1 sp. intro Cuba, Hispaniola, Juan Fernandez Island; Cearanthes monospecific endemic of NE Brazil; Chlidanthus 5 spp. endemic mostly to the Andes of Peru, Bolivia, and NW Argentina; Clinanthus 24 spp. W SAM endemic genera, most endemic to Peru, but also in Ecuador, Bolivia, N Chile, and NW Argentina; Crinum ~5 spp. native to Honduras S to Peru, N+E Brazil, also in Paraguay and Cuba and introduced to some of the Caribbean islands; Eremolirion is a monospecific endemic of N + C Chile (may be described as Paposoa); Eucrosia 6 spp. endemic genera of Ecuador and Peru; Eustephia 6 spp. endemic genera of Peru and Bolivia; Griffinia 23 spp. narrow endemic genera of E+C Brazil; Hieronymiella 11 neoendemic spp. native to Bolivia, Peru, NW Argentina; Hippeastrum 116 spp. former neoendemic genera native to Costa Rica and tropical SAM S to Peru, Bolivia, and N Argentina, introduced in the Antilles, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Belize; Hymenocallis ~34 spp. native to CAM (exc. El Salvador), the Caribbean and Antilles Islands, and tropical SAM S to Peru and Brazil; Ismene 11 narrow endemic spp. of Peru and Ecuador; Leptochiton 2 neoendemic spp. in Ecuador and Peru; Mathieua is a monospecific extinct species formerly endemic to Peru;Pamianthe 3 neoendemic spp. of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Colombia;Paposoa is a monospecific endemic of N + C Chile; Paramongaia 5 neoendemic spp. of Peru and Bolivia; Phaedranassa 11 neoendemic spp. of Costa Rica, Colombia, and Ecuador; Phycella ~7 Chile endemic spp. in C + N Chile;Placea 4-6 spp. endemic to N + C Chile, S almost to Patagonia; Plagiolirion is a monospecific rare endemic of Colombia thought extinct until rediscovered in Río Cauca Valley in 1989; Pyrolirion 8 neoendemic spp. of N Chile, Peru, and Bolivia;Rauhia 5 narrow Peru endemic spp.; Rhodolirium 2 SAM endemics native to C Chile + NW Argentina; Stenomesson 19 W SAM endemic spp. of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and N Chile;Traubia is a monospecific endemic of N + C Chile; Urceolina ~29 neoendemic spp. of Guatemala, Panama, Costa Rica, Colombia, N Brazil, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Peru;Worsleya monospecific endemic of E Brazil;Zephyranthes ~192 neoendemic spp. found from SE USA S through Mexico, CAM, Antilles, and SAM S to Tierra del Fuego.

Patagonia Genera Include:

Allioideae: Allium 1 sp. intro to S Argentina and Falkland Is.; Gilliesia 1-2 sp. in S Argentina but may be just N of this region; Latace 1 sp. in Los Lagos, Chile; Leucocoryne 1 sp. in Bio Bio and Lagos, Chile; Nothoscordum 1-2 spp. native in the N. Patagonia region in Bio Bio S to Los Lagos, Chile, and Rio Negro, Argentina; Solaria 1 sp. at the N limit in Bio Bio, Chile, and E Neuquen, Argentina, or syn. of Gilliesia; Tristagma 4 spp. native throughout the entire region from the N limit to the S end of Magallanes / Tierra del Fuego. Amaryllidoideae: Rhodolirium 2 spp. Bio Bio to Araucania, Chile, and Rio Negro to Chubut, Argentina; Zephyranthes 1 sp. in Argentina in Neuquen and Rio Negro S to Chubut.

Additional Information and References

  • Visit Lyrae’s Dictionary of Botanical Terms to learn the terminology of botanists. Note that if you hover over most of the words in the articles, you can also get definitions from them there.
  • Willis, Lyrae (Unpublished). Plant Families of North America. This is where all of the family descriptions come from. Below should be most of my references for this, along with my own personal observations throughout North America.
  • Canadensys: Acadia University, Université de Montréal Biodiversity Centre, University of Toronto Mississauga, University of British Columbia. http://data.canadensys.net/explorer (accessed 2020 – current)
  • FNA (1993+). Flora of North America. https://floranorthamerica.org/Main_Page. Accessed 2022-current.
  • GBIF.org (2020+), GBIF Home Page. Available from: https://www.gbif.org
  • iNaturalist.org (2020+). https://www.inaturalist.org/. Accessed 2020-current.
  • Naturalista: CONABIO http://www.naturalista.mx (Accessed 2020–current).
  • Neotropikey: Milliken, W., Klitgård, B., & Baracat, A. eds. (2009+). Neotropikey: Interactive key and information resources for flowering plants of the Neotropics. www.kew.org/neotropikey.com (accessed 2020 – current).
  • Patagonia Wildflowers: Wildflower Identification Site. https://patagoniawildflowers.org/ Accessed throughout the fall of 2020.
  • POWO (2019+). Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet: http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/
  • Stevens, P. F. (2001+). Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 14, July 2017 [more or less continuously updated since]. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/
  • USDA, NRCS. 2020. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 2 June 2020). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC, USA; Accessed 2020-present.
  • Watson, L., and Dallwitz, M.J. (1992+). The Families of Flowering Plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval. Version: 2nd May 2020. delta-intkey.com. Accessed spring through fall of 2020.
  • WFO (2022): World Flora Online. Published on the Internet: http://www.worldfloraonline.org. Accessed Spring 2022 – current

My Current Plant Family Education Fundraiser

I am currently seeking funding to expand my website and SEO capabilities as I keep adding new families, and I am also looking to invest in a new macro lens, as I will soon be adding floral dissections to the families as they become available to me. You can donate to help support native plant education using the GoFundMe link, also at the bottom of the page.

Copyright Information

The information and the photos on this site are free to use for educational purposes, with proper attribution. For other uses, please contact me first.

You can cite this site as Willis, Lyrae (2020+). Lyrae’s Nature Blog – Plant Families of North America. https://lyraenatureblog.com/

30 Apr, 2026

29 Apr, 2026

How to Identify the Arecaceae Palm Family

Washingtonia robusta Mexican Fan Palm showing cluster of leaves on the top of the truck, very characteristic of the Arecaceae family
Washingtonia robusta Mexican Fan Palm showing cluster of leaves on the top of the truck, very characteristic of the Arecaceae family.
Page Last Updated May 16, 2026.

Introduction to the Arecaceae Family

Welcome to the Arecaceae family, a curious monocot that often thinks it’s a tree!

Common Botanical Description

If you’re new to plant morphology, this guide is a perfect beginner’s description for learning to identify the Arecaceae or palm family, with no need to know any scientific jargon. Below this section is additional information on uses and morphology photos to help you identify the family, followed by pictures of individual species found in North America. But for researchers or those wanting to learn a more in-depth version, refer to the Scientific Botanical Description below the images for highly detailed scientific descriptions and genus-level distribution data.

Leaves and Stems of the Arecaceae: The Arecaceae are mostly trees or shrubs, but woody vines that climb using spines and hooks are also seen. And the trees are not “true trees” by the botanical definition because they cannot perform secondary growth (get wider trunks as they age), so when they have trunks, they tend to be long and skinny and topped with a cluster of leaves just at the very top. Others are multi-stemmed from the ground, and still other shrub forms are trunkless.

The leaves are almost always compound, made of leaflets, often via shredding of the leaf as it emerges from its sheath. They are mostly either fan-shaped or feather-like with pairs of opposite leaflets.  

Flowers of the Arecaceae: The flowers are almost always unisexual (male or female, not both in the same flower) with male and female flowers on the same plant (monoecious) or separate plants (dioecious). Individual flowers are small, usually having 6 white to greenish tepals, but they are usually arranged in sometimes enormous branched inflorescences enclosed in a leafy spathe at their base.

Reproductive Features of the Arecaceae: The male parts (stamens) appear in 3s and may occasionally have essentially too many to count, usually appearing in 2 or 3 whorls. The ovary has 3(4-10) chambers with one ovule in each, and each chamber may have its own style, or there may be no styles.

Fruits of the Arecaceae: Arecaceae fruits are nearly always a berry or a drupe (think like a cherry with a central pit, though some palms are more fibrous than fleshy) or, rarely, a nut (coconut). Seeds are always oily.

Uses of Arecaceae 

The Arecaceae family has enormous economical importance for trade and local uses throughout the tropics, including coconut products (Cocos nucifera), palm oils (Elaeis guineensis), betel nut palm (Areca catechu), peach palm (Bactris gasipaes), palm dates, ivory nuts, carnauba wax, house-building materials, rattan cane, raffia, hats and mats, etc. Many are also used ornamentally around the world, including Dypsis lutescens, Howea forsteriana, Phoenix species, Sabal species, Washingtonia robusta, Roystonea regia, and more.

Record-Setting Arecaceae

There are some remarkable palms, including Ceroxylon quindiuense from Colombia, which is the tallest monocot in the world at 60 m tall. Lodoicea maldivica has the largest seeds of any plant, 40–50 cm in diameter and weighing 15–30 kg each. Raffia palms (Raphia spp.) have the largest leaves of any plant up to 25 m long and 3 m wide. The Corypha species has the largest inflorescence of any plant, up to 7.5 m tall, and contains millions of small flowers. Calamus stems (woody vine palms) can reach 200 m in length.

Ecosystem and Wildlife Values of Arecaceae

Palms are considered keystone resources in tropical and subtropical ecosystems, where they provide important structure, food, and shelter in rainforests. They also offer habitat and nesting sites for countless birds, reptiles, and invertebrates and host numerous epiphytic plants as well. They are a critical food source for fruit-eating animals, providing a consistent source of food.

Morphology of Arecaceae in North America

Learn how to identiyf the Arecaceae family with these morphology photos!

Some Species of Arecaceae Found in North America

Arecoideae Subfamily

Adonidia merrillii Christmas palm showing drupes that are characteristic of the Arecaceae family

Adonida merrillii—Christmas Palm

This feather palm is known for its bright red and green berry-like drupes, which give it the common name “Christmas Palm.” This former endemic of the Phillipines is often grown in North America and may be starting to naturalize. This one was in cultivation in Mexico.

Attalea cohune palm from Mexico, a feather palm with orange-yellow drupes

Attalea cohune—Cohune Palm

This slow-growing, relatively cold-hardy palm has a single trunk with a top of loose, feather-like leaves. This species is endemic to southwestern Mexico, parts of Central America, and Colombia. This one was in cultivation in Mexico.

Coryphoideae Subfamily

Phoenix dactylifera of the Arecaceae family - the date palm that produces delicious dates

Phoenix dactylifera—Date Palm

This is where most of our delicious dates come from, the date palm. It is also widely cultivated in palm-growing regions of North America. It is a feather palm up to 30 m tall that produces very sweet drupes (dates) in large, drooping inflorescences.

Sabal minor, a close-up of a costapalmate fan leaf common in the Coryphoideae subfamily of the Arecaceae

Sabal minor—Dwarf Palmetto

This wild palm is probably one of the most northern species, ranging from northern Mexico north into Oklahoma and east to North Carolina. It has fan-like costapalmate leaves and remains mostly trunkless its entire life but can get somewhat tree-like as it ages.

Washingtonia robusta Mexican Fan Palm growing wild in Mexico

Washingtonia robusta—Mexican Fan Palm

One of the most commonly cultivated subtropical palms in the world, this palm is native to the Sonoran Desert along the Baja California Peninsula, Mexico. It grows up to 25 m and has leaf stalks armed with sharp thorns and broad fan-shaped leaves. These ones were growing wild in Mazatlán, Sinaloa, Mexico.

Scientific Botanical Description of the Arecaceae Family

Habit & Leaf Form of the Arecaceae Family

The Arecaceae family is a group of arborescent, pachycaul trees, shrubs, and woody vines that may be trunk-forming, trunkless, or prostrate. They are green and photosynthesizing; mesophytic (mostly) or xerophytic; and self-supporting (usually) or climbing via spines and hooks. They are not true trees since secondary growth via vascular cambium is impossible, explaining the nearly constant diameter of the stem, though some have anomalous secondary growth. 

Leaves are often spirally arranged at the top of an unbranched stem (monopodial) and may be solitary or clustered. They can range from small to exceptionally large, and they have alternate spiral or distichous arrangements. The leaves are leathery, petiolate, epulvinate, and sheathing, with tubular sheaths that have joined margins but often split at maturity. Leaves are almost always compound or falsely bifoliolate, pinnate, palmate, or rarely bipinnate. Leaves become compound by ontogenetically predetermined splitting of the leaves as they emerge. The lamina has no cross-venules. Leaves are often ligulate in palmate and costapalmate forms but otherwise are eligulate. Vernation is conduplicate. Stomata are mostly tetracytic.

Flowers of the Arecaceae Family

The family is almost entirely dioecious and monoecious, or sometimes polygamomonoecious, and rarely hermaphroditic. Flora nectaries may be present from the gynoecium, septal nectaries, or via the stamen bases, and pollination is often entomophilous, but anemophilous pollination is also seen.

Flowers are in complex, usually axillary panicles, sometimes terminal. Inflorescences are usually spatheate and may become woody when mature. Individual flowers are small, +/- regular, 3-merous, usually cyclic, or sometimes partially acyclic. Rarely is the perianth acyclic or the androecium acyclic. A perigone tube may be present.

The perianth has a distinct calyx and corolla of tepals; sometimes they are vestigial or rarely absent. There are usually 6 tepals, but there may be 4–9 (rarely when spiral), free or joined, 2-whorled (usually 3+3, sometimes 2+2), or rarely 1; sepaloid, petaloid, or both; usually different in the 2 whorls; and usually white or cream but may be greenish.

Androecium of the Arecaceae Family

The androecium is made of 3, 6, 9, or 10–900 stamens and may include staminodes. They are isomerous, usually diplostemonous, or may be triplostemonous to polystemonous with the perianth. Androecial members are either free from the perianth or adnate to it, and free from one another or coherent (adelphous), with the filaments often united into a tube or cup. They are 2 or 3 whorled (or acyclic). The anthers dehisce via longitudinal slits and are latrorse and tetrasporangiate.

Gynoecium of the Arecaceae Family

The gynoecium consists of a synovarious to synstylovarious, rarely apocarpous, ovary that is 3 (4–10) carpelled or, when syncarpous, 1 (rarely by abortion as in Cocos) or 3 (4–10) celled. It may be non-stylate or stylate. Styles 1 or 3 (4–10); free to fully joined, with dry-type stigmas that are papillate and Group II type. There is 1 ovule per locule with subapical or basal (or lateral) placentation; non-arillate; orthotropous, anatropous, campylotropous, or hemianatropous; bitegmic; and crassinucellate.

Fruit of the Arecaceae Family

Arecaceae fruits are nearly always an indehiscent berry or a drupe (sometimes with a fibrous mesocarp), occasionally an aggregate, or rarely a nut (Cocos nucifera). When apocarpous (rarely), it is drupaceous and indehiscent. Fruits are 1-seeded with endospermic seeds that are usually oil, usually do not contain starch, and may or may not be ruminate.

Taxonomy of Arecaceae

There are 2,457 species in 188 genera in the Arecaceae family of the Arecales order of the Commelinid clade of monocots. Additionally, there are 5 subfamilies in the family, as follows:

  1. Arecoideae are the largest subfamily, with about 1,390 species in 107 genera with a pantropical distribution but are the most diverse in South America. They are a highly diverse group with a high degree of endemism, ranging from tiny forest floor palms to giant trees and climbers. But what they do have in common is reduplicately pinnate leaves (“feather palms”), highly differentiated primary inflorescence bracts, and floral triads made of clusters of three unisexual flowers, a central female flower and 2 male flowers (exc. Chamaedoreeae, which produces a unique floral cluster known as an acervulus).
  2. Calamoideae are easy to identify since they are woody vines that climb by ± recurved spines and produce fruits covered by reflexed scales. They are a pantropical subfamily of 655 species and 21 genera but are mostly found in the South Pacific islands.
  3. Ceroxyloideae is a diverse group of 45 species in 8 genera, mostly found in central and western South America, Florida, and the Antilles but also in Madagascar and NE Australia. They are often called wax palms because their trunks are often waxy and they typically have pinnate leaves and are more cold-tolerant and found at higher elevations than most palms.
  4. Coryphoideae are a group of fan palms with 448 species in 45 genera, best known for their palmate or costapalmate leaves, and include well-known members such as Phoenix, Washingtonia, and Sabal. They are mostly shrubs and trees with a pantropical to warm-temperate distribution and are represented in the Americas, both native and introduced.
  5. Nypoideae is a monospecific subfamily, a rhizomatous plant with dichotomously branched stems, racemose inflorescences, and fruits with longitudinal ridges protruding into the seed. It is the only palm adapted to the mangrove biome, and it is found in the South Pacific Islands.

Genera of the Arecaceae Family:

Arecoideae: Acanthophoenix (3), Acrocomia (8), Actinokentia (2), Actinorhytis (1), Adonidia (1), Aiphanes (28), Allagoptera (5), Archontophoenix (6), Areca (45), Asterogyne (5), Astrocaryum (38), Attalea (72), Bactris (79), Balaka (9), Barcella (1), Basselinia (14), Beccariophoenix (2), Bentinckia (2), Brassiophoenix (2), Burretiokentia (5), Butia (20), Calyptrocalyx (26), Calyptrogyne (18), Calyptronoma (3), Carpentaria (1), Carpoxylon (1), Chamaedorea (108), Chambeyronia (2), Clinosperma (4), Clinostigma (11), Cocos (1), Cyphokentia (2), Cyphophoenix (4), Cyphosperma (4), Cyrtostachys (7), Deckenia (1), Desmoncus (11), Dictyocaryum (3), Dictyosperma (1), Dransfieldia (1), Drymophloeus (7), Dypsis (107), Elaeis (2), Euterpe (8), Gaussia (5), Geonoma (68), Hedyscepe (1), Heterospathe (38), Howea (2), Hydriastele (48), Hyophorbe (5), Hyospathe (4), Iguanura (32), Iriartea (1), Iriartella (2), Jubaea (1), Jubaeopsis (1), Kentiopsis (4), Laccospadix (1), Lemurophoenix (1), Leopoldinia (2), Lepidorrhachis (1), Linospadix (7), Loxococcus (1), Lytocaryum (4), Manicaria (2), Marojejya (2), Masoala (2), Nenga (5), Neonicholsonia (1), Neoveitchia (2), Nephrosperma (1), Normanbya (1), Oenocarpus (10), Oncosperma (6), Orania (18), Parajubaea (3), Pelagodoxa (1), Phoenicophorium (1), Pholidostachys (4), Physokentia (7), Pinanga (138), Podococcus (2), Pogonotium (3), Ponapea (3), Prestoea (10), Ptychococcus (2), Ptychosperma (29), Reinhardtia (6), Rhopaloblaste (6), Rhopalostylis (2), Roscheria (1), Roystonea (10), Satakentia (1), Sclerosperma (3), Socratea (5), Solfia (1), Sommieria (1), Syagrus (54), Synechanthus (2), Tectiphiala (1), Veitchia (8), Verschaffeltia (1), Voanioala (1), Welfia (2), Wendlandiella (1), Wettinia (22), and Wodyetia (1).

Calamoideae: Calamus (418), Eleiodoxa (1), Eremospatha (11), Eugeissona (6), Korthalsia (27), Laccosperma (6), Lepidocaryum (1), Mauritia (2), Mauritiella (4), Metroxylon (7), Myrialepis (1), Oncocalamus (5), Pigafetta (2), Plectocomia (15), Plectocomiopsis (6), Raphia (20), and Salacca (22).

Ceroxyloideae: Ammandra (1), Aphandra (1), Ceroxylon (12), Juania (1), Oraniopsis (1), Phytelephas (7), Pseudophoenix (4), and Ravenea (20).

Coryphoideae: Acoelorrhaphe (1), Arenga (25), Borassodendron (2), Borassus (5), Bismarckia (1), Brahea (11), Caryota (14), Chamaerops (1), Chelyocarpus (4), Chuniophoenix (3), Coccothrinax (53), Colpothrinax (3), Copernicia (28), Corypha (5), Cryosophila (10), Guihaia (2), Hemithrinax (3), Hyphaene (8), Itaya (1), Johannesteijsmannia (4), Kerriodoxa (1), Lanonia (8), Latania (3), Leucothrinax (1), Licuala (153), Livistona (28), Lodoicea (1), Maxburretia (3), Medemia (1), Nannorrhops (1), Phoenix (14), Pholidocarpus (6), Pritchardia (29), Rhapidophyllum (1), Rhapis (11), Sabal (~15), Sabinaria (1), Saribus (8), Satranala (1), Schippia (1), Serenoa (1), Tahina (1), Thrinax (3), Trachycarpus (9), Trithrinax (4), Wallichia (8), Washingtonia (2), and Zombia (1).

Nypoideae: Nypa (1).

Key Differences From Similar Families

The Arecaceae is a unique family of monocot trees and shrubs that are easily distinguished from other families. However, Cyclanthaceae is a family of palm-like monocot shrubs that can be confused at times. However, some Cyclanthaceae are root climbers (climbing palms use recurved spines, not roots, to climb); others are shrub-like and do not develop palm leaves. They have distinctive spicate inflorescences with alternating male and female flowers unique to Cyclanthaceae, and when present, their perianth parts are in sets of 4, unlike those of palms.

Distribution of Arecaceae

The Arecaceae family is a widespread pantropical and tropical family, mostly restricted to the tropics and subtropics, although it can be found in the warm temperate regions of North America. In the Americas the family is found from the southern USA through Mexico, Central America, and South America.

Distribution of Arecaceae in the Americas

Canadian Genera Include:

Absent.

USA Genera Include:

Arecoideae: Butia 1 sp. intro to FL, SC, NC; Chamaedorea 1 sp. intro to FL and HI; Cocos 1 sp. intro to FL, GA, SC, NC, and HI; Dypsis 1 sp. intro to FL; Elaeis 1 sp. intro to FL; Ptychosperma 2 spp. introduced in FL; Roystonea 1 sp. native to FL. Ceroxyloideae: Pseudophoenix 1 sp. native to FL. Coryphoideae: Acoelorraphe 1 sp. native to FL; Caryota 2 spp. introduced to FL; Coccothrinax 1 sp. native to FL; Leucothrinax monospecific native to FL Keys; Livistona 2 spp. intro to FL and HI; Phoenix 3 spp. intro to CA, AZ, FL, and HI; Pritchardia 27 spp. native to HI including mostly endemics; Rhapidophyllum monospecific native to MS, AL, GA, SC, and FL; Sabal 5-6 spp. native to TX, OK, AR, LA, MS, AL, GA, FL, SC, and NC, including 1-2 endemics; Serenoa monospecific endemic to the SE USA along S Atlantic and Gulf Coastal plains and sand hills in TX, LA, MS, AL, GA, SC, and FL; Thrinax 1 sp. native to FL; Washingtonia 2 spp. are native and introduced in CA, NV, AZ, and FL.

Mexico Genera Include:

Arecoideae: Aconidia 1 sp. intro Sin and NL S to Chp, SE to QR and Yuc; Acrocomia 1 sp. native to Nay and SLP S to Chp, also Yuc; Archontophoenix 2 spp. intro to Ags, Cam, Chp, Col, Gto, NL, QR, Sin, and Yuc; Astrocaryum 1 sp. native to Chp, Oax, QR, Ver; Attalea 4 spp. native from Nay S to Chp and SE to QR and Yuc; Bactris 4 spp. native to Cam, Chp, Oax, Tab, Tam, Ver; Calyptrogyne 1 sp. native to Chp, Tab, Ver; Chamaedorea 28 spp. native, inc. 8 endemics Sin, Son, and Tam, and widespread SLP S to Chp and SE to QR and Yuc; Cocos monospecific widely introduced and cultivated in most of Mexico except BC, Chi, Coa, Dgo, Mex, and NL; Desmoncus 1 sp. native to Oax, Ver; Dypsis 1 sp. intro to Chi, Coa, Nay, and Ver S to Chp and SE to Yuc and QR; Elaeis 1 sp. intro to Chp, Ver, and Tab; Gaussia 2 spp. native to Chp, Oax, QR, Ver; Geonoma 3 spp. native to Chp and Ver; Manicaria 1 sp. native in QR?; Reinhardtia 3 spp. native to Chp, Oax, and Ver; Roystonea 2 spp native W Son and SLP S to Oax and Chp, SE to QR and Yuc; Syagrus 1 sp. intro Dgo, NL S to Oax, plus QR, Yuc; Synechanthus 1 sp. native to S Mexico. Ceroxyloideae: Pseudophoenix 1 sp. native to QR and Yuc. Coryphoideae: Acoelorraphe monotypic native SE Mexico plus Ags, Jal; Bismarckia 1 sp. intro to Chp, Nay, Sin, QR, Yuc; Brahea 11 spp. inc. 8 endemic throughout Mexico; Caryota 1 sp. intro Nay to SLP and S to Chp, SE to E QR; Coccothrinax 7 spp. native to BC, BCS, QR, Son, Yuc, including 1 endemic to QR and Yuc; Copernicia 1 sp. intro Sin; Cryosophila 2 spp. with 1 endemic Sin S to Chp and SE to QR; Licuala 1 sp. intro Gro, Jal, and Nay; Phoenix 3 spp. intro to NW Mexico; Rhapis 1 sp. intro Mor; Sabal 10 spp., inc. 4 endemics native to most of Mexico except BC, BCS, Chi, and Coa; Thrinax 1 sp. native from Nay E to SLP and all S, but mostly QR and Yuc; Trachycarpus 1 sp. intro to Chp, Jal, QR, and Sin; Washingtonia 2 spp., inc. 1 endemic to SW USA, BC, Son, and other intro in NE Mexico.

Neotropical Genera Include:

Arecoideae: Acrocomia ~ 9 spp. native to CAM,  the Caribbean, and SAM S to Argentina; Aiphanes 26 spp. endemic to CAM, SAM, and the Caribbean; Allagoptera 5 spp. endemic to SAM; Asterogyne 5 spp. native to CAM and N SAM, with 3 endemic to Venezuela; Astrocaryum ~ 40 spp. native to CAM, SAM, and Trinidad; Attalea ~67 spp. native to Mexico, the Caribbean, CAM, and tropical SAM; Bactris ~79 spp. native to Mexico, CAM, and tropical SAM; Barcella monotypic endemic to Amazonas and Roraima in NW Brazil; Butia ~ 25 spp. native to Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Argentina; Calyptrogyne 18 spp. native to CAM and Colombia, including 11 endemic to Panama; Calyptronoma 3 spp. endemic genera of the Greater Antilles; Chamaedorea 100 spp. native to CAM, Colombia, N+C Brazil, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia; Cocos monospecific cultivated and introduced to El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, the Greater Antilles, Colombia, Venezuela, French Guiana, Brazil, Bolivia, and N Chile; Desmoncus 24 spp. native to CAM (exc. El Salvador) and tropical SAM S to Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Brazil, Trinidad-Tobago, and the Windward Islands; Dictyocaryum 3 spp. endemic genera of Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Bolivia, N Brazil, Guyana, Ecuador, and Peru; Elaeis 1 sp. native to Honduras S to Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, N Brazil, French Guiana, and Suriname and intro to El Salvador, Hispaniola, Trinidad-Tobago, and Windward Islands; Euterpe 8 spp. native to CAM (exc. El Salvador) and tropical SAM S to Peru, Bolivia, NE Argentina (exc. Uruguay); Gaussia 5 spp. native to the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Cuba, S Mexico, Belize, and Guatemala; Geonoma 68 spp. native to CAM (exc. El Salvador), Haiti, Lesser Antilles, and tropical SAM S to Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, and S Brazil; Hyospathe 4 spp. native from Costa Rica S to Peru, Bolivia, and N Brazil; Iriartea monospecific native from Nicaragua S to Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and N+C Brazil; Iriartella 2 spp. endemic to Guyana, Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, and W Brazil (Acre, Amazonas, Roraima, and Pará); Jubaea monospecific endemic to C Chile; Leopoldinia 2 spp. endemic to Colombia, Venezuela, and NW Brazil; Lytocaryum 4 spp. endemic to Brazil; Manicaria 2 spp. native to CAM (exc. El Salvador), Trinidad-Tobago, and tropical SAM S to Peru and N Brazil; Neonicholsonia monospecific endemic to Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama; Oenocarpus 10 spp. native from Costa Rica S to Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, and Trinidad-Tobago; Parajubaea 3 spp. endemic to the N Andes of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia; Pholidostachys 7 spp. native to NW Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru; Prestoea 10 spp. native to Nicaragua S to Peru, Bolivia, and N Brazil, exc. French Guiana and Suriname, also in the Greater Antilles; Reinhardtia 6 spp. native from S Mexico to the N tip of Colombia and 1 endemic to the SW Dominican Republic; Roystonea 10 spp. native to Caribbean Islands, Belize, Honduras, Nicaragua, Colombia, and Venezuela, and introduced to El Salvador, Panama, Guyana; Syagrus 54 former SAM endemics native to tropical SAM S to Peru, Bolivia, and NE Argentina; Socratea 5 spp. endemic to Nicaragua S to Peru, Bolivia, N+NE Brazil; Synechanthus 2 spp. native to CAM (exc. El Salvador), Colombia, and Ecuador; Welfia 2 spp. native to Panama, Costa Rica, Honduras, Nicaragua, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru; Wendlandiella monospecific endemic to Peru, Bolivia, and Acre, Brazil; Wettinia 22 spp. native to Panama, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and NW Brazil, primarily at higher altitudes up to 2200m. Calamoideae: Calamus 1 sp. intro to Trinidad-Tobago; Lepidocaryum monospecific endemic to N SAM in Colombia, Guyana, Peru, Venezuela, and N Brazil; Mauritia 2 spp. endemic to tropical SAM, S to Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil, also in Trinidad-Tobago; Mauritiella 4 spp. native to tropical SAM, S to Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil, exc. French Guiana; Raphia 1 sp. native to Nicaragua S to Colombia, and N Brazil, and intro to Trinidad-Tobago. Ceroxyloideae: Ammandra monotypic endemic of Colombia and Ecuador, where it is endangered; Aphandra monotypic endemic of the Amazon rainforests of Ecuador, Brazil, and Peru; Ceroxylon 12 spp. endemic to the Andes in Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia in montane habitats up to over 3000m; Juania monospecific endemic of Juan Fernández Islands; Phytelephas 6 spp. native to S Panama and along Andes to Ecuador, Bolivia, Colombia, NW Brazil, and Peru; Pseudophoenix 4 spp. of Hispaniola (3 endemics), the Greater Antilles, Windward Islands, Bahamas, and Belize. Coryphoideae: Acoelorraphe monotypic endemic native to CAM, the Caribbean, Colombia, and the Bahamas; Brahea 3 spp. native to Belize, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua; Chelyocarpus 4 NW SAM endemics of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and N Brazil; Coccothrinax 52 spp. native throughout the Caribbean, the Bahamas, Colombia, Belize, and Venezuela, most spp. are endemic to Cuba; Colpothrinax 3 spp. endemic to Belize, Costa Rica, Cuba, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico Southwest, Nicaragua, and Panamá; Copernicia 28 spp. native to Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Cuba (22 endemics), Dominican Republic, Haiti, Paraguay, Venezuela, and NE Argentina and introduced into the Netherlands Antilles and Trinidad-Tobago; Cryosophila 9 spp. native to CAM (exc. El Salvador) and N. Colombia and intro to Trinidad-Tobago; Hemithrinax 3 spp. endemic to E Cuba; Itaya monospecific endemic to Brazil, Colombia, and Peru; Leucothrinax monospecific endemic to the Bahamas, Cuba, Haiti, Leeward Is., Puerto Rico, Turks-Caicos Is., and the Florida Keys; Phoenix 1 sp. intro to Bolivia, El Salvador, and parts of the Caribbean; Sabal ~10 spp. native throughout SAM, the Caribbean Islands, Colombia, and Venezuela; Schippia monospecific endemic to Belize and Guatemala; Thrinax 3 spp. endemic to the N Caribbean and most of Greater Antilles, Belize, Honduras, and Nicaragua and intro to El Salvador and Trinidad-Tobago; Trithrinax 4 spp. SAM endemics of N Argentina, Bolivia, C+S Brazil, and Uruguay; Washingtonia 1 sp. intro to Bolivia and El Salvador; Zombia monospecific endemic of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles. Nypoideae: Nypa monospecific introduced to Guyana, Panamá, and Trinidad-Tobago.

Patagonia Genera Include:

Absent

Additional Information and References

  • Visit Lyrae’s Dictionary of Botanical Terms to learn the terminology of botanists. Note that if you hover over most of the words in the articles, you can also get definitions from them there.
  • Willis, Lyrae (Unpublished). Plant Families of North America. This is where all of the family descriptions come from. Below should be most of my references for this, along with my own personal observations throughout North America.
  • Baker, W. J., Norup, M. V., Clarkson, J. J., Couvreur, T. L., Dowe, J. L., Lewis, C. E., Pintaud, J. C., Savolainen, V., Wilmot, T., & Chase, M. W. (2011). Phylogenetic relationships among arecoid palms (Arecaceae: Arecoideae). Annals of botany, 108(8), 1417–1432. https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcr020.
  • Canadensys: Acadia University, Université de Montréal Biodiversity Centre, University of Toronto Mississauga, University of British Columbia. http://data.canadensys.net/explorer (accessed 2020 – current)
  • FNA (1993+). Flora of North America. https://floranorthamerica.org/Main_Page. Accessed 2022-current.
  • GBIF.org (2020+), GBIF Home Page. Available from: https://www.gbif.org
  • iNaturalist.org (2020+). https://www.inaturalist.org/. Accessed 2020-current.
  • Naturalista: CONABIO http://www.naturalista.mx (Accessed 2020–current).
  • Neotropikey: Milliken, W., Klitgård, B., & Baracat, A. eds. (2009+). Neotropikey: Interactive key and information resources for flowering plants of the Neotropics. www.kew.org/neotropikey.com (accessed 2020 – current).
  • Palmweb – Palms of the World Online. https://palmweb.org/ – This site is considered the global authority on palms, with most other authoritative sites referring to it.
  • Patagonia Wildflowers: Wildflower Identification Site. https://patagoniawildflowers.org/ Accessed throughout the fall of 2020.
  • POWO (2019+). Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet: http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/
  • Stevens, P. F. (2001+). Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 14, July 2017 [more or less continuously updated since]. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/
  • USDA, NRCS. 2020. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 2 June 2020). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC, USA; Accessed 2020-present.
  • Watson, L., and Dallwitz, M.J. (1992+). The Families of Flowering Plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval. Version: 2nd May 2020. delta-intkey.com. Accessed spring through fall of 2020.
  • WFO (2022): World Flora Online. Published on the Internet: http://www.worldfloraonline.org. Accessed Spring 2022 – current

My Current Plant Family Education Fundraiser

I am currently seeking funding to expand my website and SEO capabilities as I keep adding new families, and I am also looking to invest in a new macro lens, as I will soon be adding floral dissections to some of the families. Donate to support native plant education using the GoFundMe link, also at the bottom of the page.

Copyright Information:

The information and the photos on this site are free to use for educational purposes, with proper attribution. For other uses, please contact me first.

You can cite this site as follows: Willis, Lyrae (2020+). Lyrae’s Nature Blog – Plant Families of North America. https://lyraenatureblog.com/.

29 Apr, 2026

28 Apr, 2026

How to Identify the Tofieldiaceae or False Asphodel Family

Triantha glutinosa inflorescence, typical of the Tofieldiaceae family
Triantha glutinosa inflorescence, typical of the Tofieldiaceae family.
Page Last Updated May 5, 2026.

Introduction to the Tofieldiaceae Family

The Tofieldiaceae family is a very small, mostly northern family of bogs and fens, some of my favorite habitats to explore. They are considered a basal monocot, diverging early in evolution, giving them some unique features.

I have only found Triantha glutinosa in this family several times, but it has always been found in a bog or fen at medium to high elevation in the mountains of coastal British Columbia. So, of course, I immediately was drawn to them.

Common Botanical Description

If you’re new to plant morphology, this guide is a perfect beginner’s description, with no need to know any scientific jargon. Below this section is additional information on uses and morphology photos to help you identify the family, followed by pictures of individual species found in North America. But for researchers or those wanting to learn a more in-depth version, refer to the Scientific Botanical Description below the images for highly detailed scientific descriptions and genus-level distribution data.

Leaves and Stems of the Tofieldiaceae: This family is made of mostly small perennial herbs with flat, odorless leaves that lack a distinctive upper and lower surface. They are simple (not compound), appearing somewhat grass-like in appearance, or, rarely, egg-shaped, and have parallel veins.

Flowers of the Tofieldiaceae: Flowers mostly contain both male (stamens) and female (ovary, style, stigma) parts in the same flower (bisexual) and have nectaries. Inflorescences usually come from leafless stalks and are arranged in loose or contracted spikes. There is usually a conspicuous whorl of 3 bracts (calyculus) located just below the flowers, which helps identify the family. Flowers are made of 2 whorls of greenish or petal-like tepals in white, cream, purple, or brown.

Reproductive Features of the Tofieldiaceae: There are usually 2 whorls of stamens (3+3), but there may be more in Pleea. The ovary is variable but always with 3 chambers (carpels) with 1 or 3 free terminal styles, each with a stigma.

Fruits of the Tofieldiaceae: The fruits are mostly dry capsules, and the seeds usually have distinct terminal appendages.

Uses of Tofieldiaceae 

This is a small family of mostly wild, not invasive, non-cultivated plants, but Tofieldia pusilla is sometimes grown as an ornamental plant.

Ecological & Wildlife Values of Tofieldiaceae

The Tofieldiaceae family is an important component of bogs, fens, marshes, and other wet, swampy areas where they provide critical habitat and nectar for bog-dwelling insects, amphibians, and reptiles. Some are even carnivorous and trap flies in sticky sap to derive nutrients in nutrient-poor ecosystems where many plants cannot survive.

Morphology of Tofieldiaceae in North America

Learn how to identify the Tofieldiaceae Family (false asphodel family) with morphology photos

Some Species of Tofieldiaceae Found in North America

Triantha glutinosa plants with flowers, looking typical of the Tofieldiaceae family

Triantha glutinosa—Sticky False Asphodel

Herbaceous perennial, 5–50 cm tall, with leaf blades up to 30 cm long. Inflorescences are 3-30-flowered and spike-like but may be interrupted or open and have bracts subtending the flower stalks. Flowers are yellowish-white with 6 tepals. It often has sticky glands below its inflorescence, which makes it a protocarnivorous plant since it uses them to trap flies to gain nutrients in nutrient-poor bogs or fens. It is native to northern North America, mostly Canada and Alaska but south to Virginia in the eastern USA. This one was in the mountains on the Sunshine Coast of BC, Canada.

Scientific Botanical Description of the Tofieldiaceae Family

Habit & Leaf Form of the Tofieldiaceae Family

The Tofieldiaceae family are mostly small perennial, rarely annual, herbs that are autotrophic or rarely parasitic mycoheterotrophic but always green and photosynthesizing. Leaves are well-developed and may or may not have a basal aggregation of leaves. They are mostly rhizomatous, but may be tuberous or, rarely, from corms. Leaves are arranged alternately along the stem, usually spirally but sometimes distichously.

Leaves are flat and herbaceous, usually sessile but may be almost petiolate at times. They are two-ranked, isobifacial, borne edgewise to the stem, and are odorless. They are simple with entire margins, usually lanceolate, but sometimes linear or rarely ovate, always with parallel veins. Leaves are only ligulate in Pleea. The mesophyll often contains crystals.

Flowers of the Tofieldiaceae Family

Plants are almost always hermaphrodites but rarely may be dioecious or polygamomonoecious. Floral nectaries are always present with secretion from the gynoecium except in Tofieldia, which has septal nectaries. Inflorescences are +/- scapiflorous, arranged in spikes, racemes, or corymbose cymes, with inflorescence bracts. Flowers are often bracteate, with a calyculus (whorl of 3 bracts) located just below the sepals (sometimes absent in Tofieldia), which is a useful diagnostic for the family.

Flowers are almost always actinomorphic, 3-merous, and pentacyclic. Perigone tube present to absent. Hypogynous disk absent. The perianth is made of 6 free to joined tepals that may be spreading, distinct, or shortly basally connate. They are 2-whorled (3+3), isomerous, sepaloid or petaloid, similar in the two whorls, and may sometimes be spotted. The tepals may be green to white, cream, purple, or brown but are usually inconspicuous and lack spurs or obvious patterns.

Some Triantha members are carnivorous via sticky hairs in their inflorescences that trap flies.

Androecium of the Tofieldiaceae Family

There are usually 6 androecial members (9 or 12 in Pleea). They are usually diplostemonous, with all fertile stamens more or less free of the perianth and free of one another; they are normally alterniperianth. They are usually 2-whorled 3+3 but may be 2-whorled 6+3 or 6+6 in Pleea. Stamens are filantherous and sometimes flattened. Anthers are dorsifixed (hypopeltate) or basifixed; versatile; dehiscing via longitudinal slits; and introrse.

Gynoecium of the Tofieldiaceae Family

The gynoecium is 3-carpeled, semicarpous (carpels are free above, and in Isidrogalvia (now included in Harperocallis), they are free almost to their bases), synovarious (with separate styles), or syncarpous (some Tofieldia are 3-locular with one style and a capitate stigma); it is isomerous with the perianth. The ovary is superior or partly inferior. Carpels (or locules) have 5 to many ovules with marginal or axile (when syncarpous) placentation. Terminal styles 1 or 3; always free when there are 3. Stigmas 1 or 3. Ovules are funicled, non-arillate, usually anatropous, bitegmic, and crassinucellate. 

Fruit of the Tofieldiaceae Family

The fruits are always non-fleshy and are usually a dehiscent septicidal capsule or follicle but may be an aggregate. Seeds are endospermic and oily, usually winged or with terminal appendages. Testa without phytomelan (by contrast with most capsular Asparagales, also lacking phlobaphene).

Taxonomy of Tofieldiaceae

The Tofieldiaceae is a small family of just 31 species in 3–5 genera (generic delineations are still uncertain) within the Alismatales order of the basal monocot clade. Molecular phylogenetic studies have shown it to be the second diverging clade in Alismatales after the Araceae.

Prior to molecular phylogenetics, its genera had usually been assigned to Nartheciaceae, Liliaceae, or Melanthiaceae. Pleea is also sometimes included in the Melanthiaceae, but here we place it in Tofieldiaceae as per APG IV.

Genera of the Tofieldiaceae Family:

Harperocallis (11), Pleea (1), Tofieldia (13), Triantha (4)

Key Differences From Similar Families

The Melanthiaceae family is the most likely to be confused with the Tofieldiaceae, and until modern molecular phylogenetics determined it to be a separate family, it was often included in the Melanthiaceae. However, they can be distinguished by the smaller size of Tofieldiaceae, primarily subarctic bog and fen habitats, and carpels that are distinct, each with their own separate style compared to larger perennials more often in woodlands and carpels that are typically fused. Also, none of the Melianthiaceae family members possess a calyculus, unlike most members of the Tofieldiaceae family.

Distribution of Tofieldiaceae

The Tofieldiaceae family can be found from frigid arctic and subarctic zones to temperate and even tropical, but most are northern temperate, arctic, and subarctic in North America and northern Europe and Asia.

Distribution of Tofieldiaceae in the Americas

Canadian Genera Include:

Tofieldia  2 spp. native in all of Canada, including the Arctic (and Greenland) but excluding NB, NS, and PE; Triantha 2 spp. native in all of Canada inc Arctic but exc PE.

USA Genera Include:

Harperocallis 1 endemic native of W FL; Pleea 1 monospecific southeast US endemic native to AL, FL, SC, and NC; Tofieldia 3-6 spp native to MT, MN, MI, SC, NC, and AK; Triantha 3 spp native to WA, OR, CA, ID, MT, WY, ND, MN, WI, IL, IN, OH, MI, NY, CT, VT, NH, ME, WV, VA, MD, DE, NC, SC, TN, TX, LA, MS, AL, GA, and FL.

Mexico Genera Include:

Absent

Neotropical Genera Include:

Harperocallis 10 spp., mostly narrow endemics, found in Venezuela, Bolivia, Colombia, Brazil, Ecuador, and Peru.

Patagonia Genera Include:

Absent

Additional Information and References

  • Visit Lyrae’s Dictionary of Botanical Terms to learn the terminology of botanists. Note that if you hover over most of the words in the articles, you can also get definitions from them there.
  • Willis, Lyrae (Unpublished). Plant Families of North America. This is where all of the family descriptions come from. Below should be most of my references for this, along with my own personal observations throughout North America.
  • Canadensys: Acadia University, Université de Montréal Biodiversity Centre, University of Toronto Mississauga, University of British Columbia. http://data.canadensys.net/explorer (accessed 2020 – current)
  • FNA (1993+). Flora of North America. https://floranorthamerica.org/Main_Page. Accessed 2022-current.
  • GBIF.org (2020+), GBIF Home Page. Available from: https://www.gbif.org
  • iNaturalist.org (2020+). https://www.inaturalist.org/. Accessed 2020-current.
  • Naturalista: CONABIO http://www.naturalista.mx (Accessed 2020–current).
  • Neotropikey: Milliken, W., Klitgård, B., & Baracat, A. eds. (2009+). Neotropikey: Interactive key and information resources for flowering plants of the Neotropics. www.kew.org/neotropikey.com (accessed 2020 – current).
  • Patagonia Wildflowers: Wildflower Identification Site. https://patagoniawildflowers.org/ Accessed throughout the fall of 2020.
  • POWO (2019+). Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet: http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/
  • Stevens, P. F. (2001+). Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 14, July 2017 [more or less continuously updated since]. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/
  • USDA, NRCS. 2020. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 2 June 2020). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC, USA; Accessed 2020-present.
  • Watson, L., and Dallwitz, M.J. (1992+). The Families of Flowering Plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval. Version: 2nd May 2020. delta-intkey.com. Accessed spring through fall of 2020.
  • WFO (2022): World Flora Online. Published on the Internet: http://www.worldfloraonline.org. Accessed Spring 2022 – current

My Current Plant Family Education Fundraiser

I am currently seeking funding to expand my website and SEO capabilities as I keep adding new families, and I am also looking to invest in a new macro lens, as I will soon be adding floral dissections to the families as they become available to me. You can donate to help support native plant education using the GoFundMe link, also at the bottom of the page.

Copyright Information

The information and the photos on this site are free to use for educational purposes, with proper attribution. For other uses, please contact me first.

You can cite this site as follows: Willis, Lyrae (2020+). Lyrae’s Nature Blog – Plant Families of North America. https://lyraenatureblog.com/. Accessed [DATE].

28 Apr, 2026

28 Apr, 2026

How to Identify the Potamogetonaceae Pondweed Family

Potamogeton natans—Broad-Leaved Pondweed showing the aquatic nature and floating and submerged leaves common in the Potamogetonaceae family.
Potamogeton natans—Broad-Leaved Pondweed showing the aquatic nature and floating and submerged leaves common in the Potamogetonaceae family.
Page Last Updated April 28, 2026.

Introduction to the Potamogetonaceae Family

The Potamogetonaceae family is a family of exclusively aquatic plants, mostly freshwater, that provide crucial ecosystem services in aquatic environments on every continent except Antarctica.

I have known about this important family since I was a child, playing with the Potamogeton that was growing in our backyard pond. Since I love lakes, swamps, and anything aquatic, I came across it often in my youth. Now, I understand and appreciate their importance so much more.

Common Botanical Description of the Potamogetonaceae Family

If you’re new to plant morphology, this guide is a perfect beginner’s description for learning to identify the Potamogetonaceae family, with no need to know any scientific jargon. Below this section is additional information on uses and morphology photos to help you identify the family, followed by pictures of individual species found in North America. But for researchers or those wanting to learn a more in-depth version, refer to the Scientific Botanical Description below the images for highly detailed scientific descriptions and genus-level distribution data.

Leaves and Stems of the Potamogetonaceae: This family is entirely aquatic herbs from creeping rhizomes that are rooted, and they have simple (not compound) leaves that may be submerged or floating and submerged and are arranged alternately or in whorls of 3 along the stems. Leaves typically appear to have leaf-like appendages (stipules) at their base.

Flowers of the Potamogetonaceae: Flowers emerge above the water on long stalks and are usually in spike-like clusters or sometimes a simple pair of flowers. Flowers are not your typical flowers with petals; instead, they have 0-4 ‘tepals,’ depending on how they are interpreted.

Reproductive Features of the Potamogetonaceae: Each flower has 4 fertile stamens and an ovary made of 4 free chambers (carpels).

Fruits of the Potamogetonaceae: Fruits are fleshy or non-fleshy aggregate fruits, meaning they are made from several flowers to produce a fruit that may appear like a drupe (think cherry with a central pit), an achene (think sunflower seed), or berry-like in Groenlandia. The fruits float, which helps in dispersal.

Uses of Potamogetonaceae 

The Potamogetonaceae family is a cosmopolitan aquatic group of plants that are critical in aquatic environments where they provide food and habitat for aquatic animals, birds, and more. They are a particularly important food source for ducks in North America. Some species are also grown in aquariums.

Morphology of Potamogetonaceae in North America

Learn how to identify the Potamogetonaceae, or pondweed family, with botanical descriptions and morphology photos.

Some Species of Potamogetonaceae Found in North America

Potamogeton natans—Broad-Leaved Pondweed showing the aquatic nature and floating and submerged leaves common in the Potamogetonaceae family.

Potamogeton natans—Broad-Leaved Pondweed

This herbaceous aquatic perennial grows in freshwater and has slender to robust stems that are usually simple but can sometimes be branched. Submerged leaves are long and linear, while floating leaves are egg-shaped to elliptic with conspicuous long grass-like stipules. This species has a circumboreal distribution found throughout the Northern Hemisphere. In the Americas it is found in most of Canada and the USA (excluding the southeastern states) and south to southern Mexico along the Pacific coast.

Scientific Botanical Description of the Potamogetonaceae Family

Habit & Leaf Form of the Potamogetonaceae Family

The Potamogetonaceae are a group of perennial aquatic herbs from creeping, rooted rhizomes with leafy branches but no conspicuous aggregations of leaves. Or rarely annuals in the Zannichellieae. They live mostly in fresh water (as opposed to the halophyte Ruppia, which has been suggested should be included in this family), but they can also occasionally be found in ± saline water. Stem growth may be conspicuously sympodial or not.

Leaves may be submerged or submerged and floating and may even be heterophyllous with clearly distinct submerged and floating leaves. Leaves are simple with entire margins and are linear, oblong, or ovate in shape. They are herbaceous or membranous, small to medium in size, and are usually arranged alternately distichous but occasionally may be opposite or in whorls of 3 (especially in Groenlandia). They may be pseudo-petiolate, subsessile, or sessile and are sheathing with usually tubular sheaths with free margins. Venation is one or palmately to parallel-veined, with or without cross-venules.

Leaves are often stipulate or appear so, with some debate over whether ligules are stipules with the sheaths being either free and stipule-like or fused to the leaf base for most of their length. Axillary scales are present in the form of paired intravaginal squamulae. There are no stomata, and the mesophyll has no crystals.

Flowers of the Potamogetonaceae Family

Plants are hermaphrodites with anemophilous or ornithophilous pollination, except in Zannichellieae, where they may be monoecious or rarely dioecious. Flowers are usually in emergent, scapiflorous, spatheate, spicate, or capitate inflorescences, or occasionally with flowers in pairs.

Flowers are small, regular, ebracteate, 4-merous, and tricyclic. The perigone tube is absent. Hypogynous disk absent. Perianth of 4 tepals or absent (if the perianth members are interpreted as staminal appendages); free; members rounded, shortly clawed, valvate, and 1-whorled.

Androecium of the Potamogetonaceae Family

The Potamogetonaceae have 4 androecial members adnate to the claws of the perianth if interpreted as such. They are all equal, free of one another, and 2- or 1-whorled. All members are exclusively fertile stamens, oppositiperianth (when interpreted as such), filantherous, and with sessile anthers or with only sessile anthers (depending on interpretation). Anthers dehisce via longitudinal slits, are extrorse, and may be appendaged (if the tepals are interpreted as outgrowths from the connective) or unappendaged.

Gynoecium of the Potamogetonaceae Family

The gynoecium is apocarpous, superior, and 4(3-8) carpelled. Carpels are usually isomerous with the perianth (or stamens). The carpels are non-stylate or stylate, apically stigmatic, and 1-ovuled. Placentation is marginal to basal (basal-ventral). Stigmas are the dry type, non-papillate, and Group II type. Ovules are pendulous, non-arillate, orthotropous, bitegmic, and crassinucellate.  

Fruit of the Potamogetonaceae Family

Fruits are fleshy or non-fleshy aggregates. The fruiting carpel is indehiscent, nucular, drupaceous, achene, or baccate (Groenlandia). Dispersal usually occurs by the floating of the heads of fruits. The fruits are 1-seeded; the seeds are non-endospermic and contain starch.

Taxonomy of Potamogetonaceae

The Potamogetonaceae family has about 111 species in 4(5) genera of the Alismatales order, a basal monocot. There has been a high degree of hybridization in the family, with chromosome duplication in some.

The very distinctive Zannichellia is weakly embedded in the Potamogetonaceae, but it is sister to Groenlandia, which is sister to the rest of the family, so it is included here.

Genera of the Potamogetonaceae Family:

Althenia (10), Groenlandia (1), Potamogeton (184 when inc. Stuckenia), Pseudalthenia (1 sometimes considered Zannichellia), and Zannichellia (4).  

Key Differences From Similar Families

The Potamogetonaceae are frequently confused with the aquatic family Ruppiaceae, or ditch-grass family. Ruppia is frequently mistaken for narrow-leaved species of Potamogeton because of its similar thread-like leaves and aquatic habitat. However, the Potamogetonaceae are primarily freshwater species as opposed to mostly appearing in variously saline environments with Ruppiaceae. Also, Potamogetonaceae have distinctive stipules that help identify them.

They could also be confused with other aquatic plants, but again, examination of the stipules, environments, and the fruits can separate them fairly easily. Within the Potamogetonaceae, fruits are often the most important features in separating species, so always try to examine the fruits when looking to the genus and species level.

Distribution of Potamogetonaceae

The family has a nearly cosmopolitan distribution, found all over the world except in extreme deserts and extreme cold. In the Americas it is found throughout Canada, the USA, Mexico, Central America, and South America. 

Distribution of Potamogetonaceae in the Americas

Canadian Genera Include:

Potamogeton 45 spp. native everywhere in Canada, including the Arctic (and GreenlandL); Stuckenia (~Potamogeton) 4 spp. native everywhere in Canada, inc. the Arctic (and Greenland); Zannichellia 1 sp., is native almost everywhere in Canada, including the Arctic, but excluding NL.

USA Genera Include:

Potamogeton 53 spp. native and intro to all of the USA, inc. HI, and native to AK; Stuckenia 4 spp. native to all of the USA, inc. AK, and intro in HI; Zannichellia 1 sp. native to almost all of the USA, inc. AK, but exc. SC.

Mexico Genera Include:

Potamogeton 4-10 spp. throughout Mexico; Stuckenia 1 sp. native to BCS, Dgo, Mex, SLP, Son; Zannichellia 1 sp. in Mex.

Neotropical Genera Include:

Potamogeton 17 spp. throughout the neotropics; Stuckenia 3-4 spp in the neotropics, sub-cosmopolitan; Zannichellia 2 spp. cosmopolitan native in the neotropics.

Patagonia Genera Include:

Potamogeton 2 spp. in most of the region, inc. Falkland Islands, but exc. Tierra Del Fuego and Aysen, Chile; Zannichellia 1 sp. native in Santa Cruz, Argentina.

Additional Information and References

  • Visit Lyrae’s Dictionary of Botanical Terms to learn the terminology of botanists. Note that if you hover over most of the words in the articles, you can also get definitions from them there.
  • Willis, Lyrae (Unpublished). Plant Families of North America. This is where all of the family descriptions come from. Below should be most of my references for this, along with my own personal observations throughout North America.
  • Canadensys: Acadia University, Université de Montréal Biodiversity Centre, University of Toronto Mississauga, University of British Columbia. http://data.canadensys.net/explorer (accessed 2020 – current)
  • FNA (1993+). Flora of North America. https://floranorthamerica.org/Main_Page. Accessed 2022-current.
  • GBIF.org (2020+), GBIF Home Page. Available from: https://www.gbif.org
  • iNaturalist.org (2020+). https://www.inaturalist.org/. Accessed 2020-current.
  • Naturalista: CONABIO http://www.naturalista.mx (Accessed 2020–current).
  • Neotropikey: Milliken, W., Klitgård, B., & Baracat, A. eds. (2009+). Neotropikey: Interactive key and information resources for flowering plants of the Neotropics. www.kew.org/neotropikey.com (accessed 2020 – current).
  • Patagonia Wildflowers: Wildflower Identification Site. https://patagoniawildflowers.org/ Accessed throughout the fall of 2020.
  • POWO (2019+). Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet: http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/
  • Stevens, P. F. (2001+). Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 14, July 2017 [more or less continuously updated since]. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/
  • USDA, NRCS. 2020. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 2 June 2020). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC, USA; Accessed 2020-present.
  • Watson, L., and Dallwitz, M.J. (1992+). The Families of Flowering Plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval. Version: 2nd May 2020. delta-intkey.com. Accessed spring through fall of 2020.
  • WFO (2022): World Flora Online. Published on the Internet: http://www.worldfloraonline.org. Accessed Spring 2022 – current

My Current Plant Family Education Fundraiser

I am currently seeking funding to expand my website and SEO capabilities as I keep adding new families, and I am also looking to invest in a new macro lens, as I will soon be adding floral dissections to the families as they become available to me. You can donate to help support native plant education using the GoFundMe link, also at the bottom of the page.

Copyright Information

The information and the photos on this site are free to use for educational purposes, with proper attribution. For other uses, please contact me first.

You can cite this site as Willis, Lyrae (2020+). Lyrae’s Nature Blog – Plant Families of North America. https://lyraenatureblog.com/

28 Apr, 2026

27 Apr, 2026

How to Identify the Aquifoliaceae or Holly Family

Ilex opaca leaves and red berry-like drupes, spiny leaves and drupes are typical of the Aquifoliaceae family
Ilex opaca leaves and red berry-like drupes, spiny leaves and drupes are typical of the Aquifoliaceae family
Page Last Updated May 5, 2026.

Introduction to the Aquifoliaceae Family

The Aquifoliaceae is a small but interesting family of mostly evergreen shrubs and trees, often with glossy, spiny leaves that are easy to recognize from holiday decorations.

Where I grew up, there were no native Ilex species, but the English holly, Ilex aquifolium, was introduced there and is rather invasive, able to grow deep in the forest canopy where its seeds are deposited by birds who eat its berry-like fruits. So my first introduction was as a pest, but since then I have found native hollies in the southeastern USA and have come to appreciate the family a lot more since. In fact, I just ordered my first batch of Yaupon tea (poorly named Ilex vomitoria) just a few days ago.

Common Botanical Description

If you’re new to plant morphology, this guide is a perfect beginner’s description to learn how to identify the Aquifoliaceae family, with no need to know any scientific jargon. Below this section is additional information on uses and morphology photos to help you identify the family, followed by pictures of individual species found in North America. But for researchers or those wanting to learn a more in-depth version, refer to the Scientific Botanical Description below the images for highly detailed scientific descriptions and genus-level distribution data.

Leaves and Stems of the Aquifoliaceae: These are a family of shrubs and trees, mostly evergreen, sometimes deciduous, and are easily recognized when they have their characteristic spiny-tipped leathery leaves, but sometimes the leaves can be dull, softer and thinner, or have smooth margins. Leaves are simple (not compound) and are arranged alternately along the stem, rarely in opposite pairs.

Flowers of the Aquifoliaceae: Flowers are male or female on separate plants (dioecious). The calyx and corolla are partially fused at the base with 4-8 lobes each, and the flowers are mostly white or cream but may be greenish-white or rarely yellow, pink, or red.

Reproductive Features of the Aquifoliaceae: There are infertile stamens (staminodes) in female flowers and infertile ovaries in male flowers. Otherwise, male flowers have stamens that alternate with the petals, and female flowers have a superior ovary that sits above the petal attachment point, with a stigma (the surface that catches pollen from other flowers) on top but rarely has a style (thread-like structure that holds the stigma).

Fruits of the Aquifoliaceae: The fruits are always fleshy red, brown, black, or green drupes (like a cherry, but smaller and less fleshy).

Uses of Aquifoliaceae 

The Aquifoliaceae family is widely used as ornamental trees and shrubs in landscaping for their usually glossy, evergreen leaves, especially those with red berry-like drupes, which are routinely used for holiday decorations. Several members are also used as a caffeine-rich tea and coffee alternative (e.g., Yaupon and Yerba Mate from North and South America, respectively). The wood is also used for carving and specialty woodworking, and the leaves are used medicinally in TCM and indigenous cultures.

Wildlife and Ecological Values of the Aquifoliaceae

The Aquifoliaceae are woody shrubs and small trees mostly with evergreen leaves that provide critical year-round structure and habitat for countless invertebrates, birds, and small mammals. The berry-like fruits are also an important food source for many birds and small animals in the winter when foods are scarce.

Morphology of Aquifoliaceae in North America

Learn how to identify the Aquifoliaceae Holly family with these morphology photos
Learn how to identify the Aquifoliaceae family with these morphology photos

Some Species of Aquifoliaceae Found in North America

Invasive Ilex aqifolium English Holly young tree growing under the dense canopy of a forest in coastal BC, Canada

Ilex aquifolium—English Holly

English holly has the typical shiny green leathery leaves with spiny margins, white flowers, and red berry-like drupes and is widely used in holiday decorations and landscaping. It has become invasive, even able to invade forest canopies through bird droppings filled with its seeds, like this young plant in a forest in BC, Canada.

Ilex cornuta Chinese Holly is also introduced and invasive in North America, and bears the shiny spiny-tipped leaves common in Aquifoliaceae

Ilex cornuta—Chinese Holly

Chinese holly is an evergreen shrub reaching up to about 3 m tall with leaves that are usually 5 (or 4)-spined and 3.5 to 10 cm long and large red berry-like drupes. It is popular for landscaping because of its leaves, drupes, and tolerance of a wide range of conditions. This, however, has resulted in it becoming invasive in the United States, especially in the southeastern states where several beautiful native hollies already grow.

Ilex decidua or Possumhaw is a deciduous Aquifoliaceae with bright red drupes the birds love

Ilex decidua—Possumhaw

This species is unique because it is deciduous, shown here with its bright red, berry-like drupes without leaves in late winter. It is an erect shrub, often with many thin trunks growing in a clump. Outside of its deciduous leaves, it can also be identified by leaves with crenate margins. While the birds love the fruits, they don’t eat them until they have frozen and thawed which removes some of the bitterness. It is native to the southeastern United states and northeastern Mexico.

Ilex opaca American Holly with spiny evergreen leaves and rare yellow flowers in the Aquifoliaceae

Ilex opaca—American Holly

This medium-sized tree has light gray bark with small warty lumps and evergreen spiny-margined leaves that are often a lighter and/or duller green than other hollies; this one has the more rare yellowish flowers not often seen in the Aquifoliaceae. American holly is a US endemic native to the southeastern United States.

Ilex vomitoria Yaupon holly branches with leaves

Ilex vomitoria—Yaupon Holly

Yaupon holly is an evergreen shrub growing up to about 9 m tall at most, with smooth light gray bark. It has evergreen leaves that are ovate to elliptical with crenate (rounded-toothed) margins instead of spines. It is an excellent source of caffeine and theobromine and was widely used as tea before the importation of Asian teas but is now gaining popularity again for its flavor and health benefits. It is native to southeastern North America, mostly the far southeastern United States, but also southeastern Mexico.

Scientific Botanical Description of the Aquifoliaceae Family

Habit & Leaf Form of the Aquifoliaceae Family

The Aquifoliaceae comprise a single Ilex genus made of shrubs and trees that are mostly evergreen or rarely deciduous. Leaves are always simple and almost always petiolate and alternately arranged but rarely may be opposite or sessile. They are often leathery but may be papery or membranous. The margins are often uniquely spinose and are rarely entire or serrated but may have varying margins even on the same plant at times; surfaces are mostly hairless. Stipules are often dark and may be minute, persistent, or caducous.

Flowers of the Aquifoliaceae Family

Plants are dioecious with axillary inflorescences that are in cymes with order 1, 2, or 3(-5) branching patterns with up to 1, 3, or 7(-31) flowers, with solitary on 1st-year branches and fasciculate on 2nd year.

Flowers are 4-6(-23)-merous, small, regular, hypogynous, and unisexual with abortive ovaries (M) or stamens (F), but they may occasionally be perfect and facultatively dioecious. The 4-8-lobed calyx persists in fruit, and the corolla is white, cream, or greenish-white, but rarely it can also be yellow, pink, or red with 4-8 imbricate petals that are connate for about 1/2 their length.

Male Flowers and Androecium of the Aquifoliaceae Family

Male flowers’ stamens alternate with petals and are epipetalous. Anthers are oblong–ovoid, introrse, and longitudinally dehiscent. The ovary is rudimentary, subglobose or pulvinate, and rostrate.

Female Flowers and Gynoecium of the Aquifoliaceae Family

Female flowers have sagittate or cordate, isomerous, epipetalous staminodes alternating with the petals and a superior, ovoid, 4-8(-10)-loculed ovary, mostly glabrous and rarely pubescent. The style is rarely developed, and it has a capitate, discoid, or columnar stigma. There are 1-2 ovules in each carpel, attached pendulously.

Fruit of the Aquifoliaceae Family

The fruit is a fleshy drupe, usually with as many stones as there are carpels, or fewer by abortion. They are usually globose or nearly so, in red, brown, black, or rarely green when mature, with 4-6 (1-23) pyrenes with a smooth, leathery, woody, stony, striated, rugose, or pitted endocarp. The seed has copious fleshy endosperm.

Taxonomy of Aquifoliaceae

The Aquifoliaceae is a small family comprising a single genus (Ilex) but with approximately 596 species in the small Aquifoliales order of the core eudicots. The Ilex genus is known to hybridize extensively, with some hybrid populations persisting and spreading.

Genera of the Aquifoliaceae:

Ilex (571).

Key Differences From Similar Families

The Phyllonomaceae and Helwingiaceae are related families in the Aquifoliales order made of shrubs and small trees, but they both have epiphyllous inflorescences (fasciculate in Helwingiaceae) on the upper leaf surface (towards the tip in Phyllonomaceae). They also have minute stipules in Phyllonomaceae and small fimbriate stipules in Helwingiaceae.

The leaves are sometimes confused with Mahonia spp. of the Berberidaceae, but that genus has pinnately compound leaves that are usually duller rather than shiny, and they produce yellow flowers instead of white or greenish in Ilex as opposed to simple and alternate in Aquifoliaceae.

Distribution of Aquifoliaceae

The Aquifoliaceae family is found on all continents except Antarctica, although it would not be considered cosmopolitan. It is most widespread in South America and Southeast Asia-Malesia. In Africa, we see fewer species and more limited ranges (2 species, mostly eastern), and in Europe, we see 3 species, which are western and southern.

Distribution of Aquifoliaceae in the Americas

Ilex species have a high center of diversity in South America, and their distributions throughout the tropics and subtropics are still fairly uncertain, which is why neotropical and Mexican genera are written as broad ranges rather than approximate species numbers.

Canadian Genera Include:

Ilex 5 spp. plus 1 hybrid; 3 spp. are native in ON, QC, and the maritime provinces (exc. Labrador); 1 sp. and 1 hybrid are introduced in BC.

USA Genera Include:

Ilex ~38 spp. plus 1 hybrid are listed as both native and introduced to most of the western half of the country, plus in the Pacific coastal states and HI.

Mexico Genera Include:

Ilex 130-150 spp. are found throughout all of Mexico.

Neotropical Genera Include:

Ilex 220-300 spp. are found throughout Central America and all of northern to central South America, excluding northern Chile.

Patagonia Genera Include:

Absent from southern Chile and southern Argentina.

Additional Information and References

  • Visit Lyrae’s Dictionary of Botanical Terms to learn the terminology of botanists. Note that if you hover over most of the words in the articles, you can also get definitions from them there.
  • Willis, Lyrae (Unpublished). Plant Families of North America. This is where all of the family descriptions come from. Below should be most of my references for this, along with my own personal observations throughout North America.
  • Canadensys: Acadia University, Université de Montréal Biodiversity Centre, University of Toronto Mississauga, University of British Columbia. http://data.canadensys.net/explorer (accessed 2020 – current)
  • FNA (1993+). Flora of North America. https://floranorthamerica.org/Main_Page. Accessed 2022-current.
  • GBIF.org (2020+), GBIF Home Page. Available from: https://www.gbif.org
  • iNaturalist.org (2020+). https://www.inaturalist.org/. Accessed 2020-current.
  • Naturalista: CONABIO http://www.naturalista.mx (Accessed 2020–current).
  • Neotropikey: Milliken, W., Klitgård, B., & Baracat, A. eds. (2009+). Neotropikey: Interactive key and information resources for flowering plants of the Neotropics. www.kew.org/neotropikey.com (accessed 2020 – current).
  • Patagonia Wildflowers: Wildflower Identification Site. https://patagoniawildflowers.org/ Accessed throughout the fall of 2020.
  • POWO (2019+). Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet: http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/
  • Stevens, P. F. (2001+). Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 14, July 2017 [more or less continuously updated since]. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/
  • USDA, NRCS. 2020. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 2 June 2020). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC, USA; Accessed 2020-present.
  • Watson, L., and Dallwitz, M.J. (1992+). The Families of Flowering Plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval. Version: 2nd May 2020. delta-intkey.com. Accessed spring through fall of 2020.
  • WFO (2022): World Flora Online. Published on the Internet: http://www.worldfloraonline.org. Accessed Spring 2022 – current

My Current Plant Family Education Fundraiser

I am currently seeking funding to expand my website and SEO capabilities as I keep adding new families, and I am also looking to invest in a new macro lens, as I will soon be adding floral dissections to the families as they become available to me. You can donate to help support native plant education using the GoFundMe link, also at the bottom of the page.

Copyright Information

The information and the photos on this site are free to use for educational purposes, with proper attribution. For other uses, please contact me first.

You can cite this site as follows: Willis, Lyrae (2020+). Lyrae’s Nature Blog – Plant Families of North America. https://lyraenatureblog.com/. Accessed [Enter Date].

27 Apr, 2026

27 Apr, 2026

How to Identify the Heliotropiaceae Family

Tournefortia hartwegiana scorpioid cymes, common in the Heliotropiaceae family
Tournefortia aka Heliotropum hartwegiana scorpioid cyme, common in the Heliotropiaceae family.
Page Last Updated May 15, 2026

Introduction to the Heliotropiaceae Family

The Heliotropiaceae family is another recent split out of the broader Boraginaceae family, so when you learn to identify the Heliotropiaceae, you will quickly see their many similarities.

The first time I encountered this family was hiking up to a lighthouse in Mazatlan, Sinaloa, Mexico, where I found a Tournefortia happily growing alongside the trail. I found its large scorpioid cymes rather beautiful, even though they are mostly white flowers. While mostly a tropical family, some species can be found as far north as Canada, and while you can find them in the United States, their highest concentration in North America appears to be in Mexico.

Common Botanical Description of the Heliotropiaceae Family

If you’re new to plant morphology, this guide is a perfect beginner’s description, with no need to know any scientific jargon. Below this section is additional information on uses and morphology photos to help you identify the family, followed by pictures of individual species found in North America. But for researchers or those wanting to learn a more in-depth version, refer to the Scientific Botanical Description below the images for highly detailed scientific descriptions and genus-level distribution data.

Leaves and Stems of the Heliotropiaceae: The Heliotropiaceae include many subshrubs or herbs, but also vines, shrubs, and even small trees, often with hairy stems and leaves. The leaves are simple and alternately arranged along the stem; they may or may not have leaf stalks (petioles), and the margins are usually smooth but may be toothed or folded backwards on the edges.

Flowers of the Heliotropiaceae: The flowers are usually found in characteristic coiled inflorescences called scorpioid cymes. Flowers are mostly bisexual, containing both male (stamens) and female (ovary, stigma, style) parts within the same flower. The sepals are fused at the base into a short tube with 5 spreading lobes. The corolla is also fused at the base with 5 lobes that are often white but can also be yellow, blue, pink, or orange.

Reproductive Features of the Heliotropiaceae: There are typically 5 stamens in the throat of the flower tube. The Heliotropiaceae family all possess a single style on top of their ovary with a unique cone-shaped stigma that is an easy way to identify the family when visible. However, since the reproductive features are usually hidden in the floral tube, it often requires dissection or a hand lens to see.

Fruits of the Heliotropiaceae: Fruits may be dry fruits or fleshy drupes (think cherry with a hard stony pit) but are usually 4-seeded and separate into 1–4 “nutlets.”

Uses of Heliotropiaceae 

Within the Heliotropiaceae, the Heliotropium genus is often used ornamentally, especially those with violet, purple, or fragrant flowers, like Heliotropium arborescens (garden heliotrope).

The Heliotropium genus is also the one most often used in traditional medicine to treat skin problems and wounds, with some being used to lower blood pressure, treat allergies, and act as a microbicide. Certain Euploca species have also been used to treat gastrointestinal, respiratory, and vascular disorders.

Morphology of Heliotropiaceae in North America

Learn how to identify the Heliotropiaceae family with morphology photos
Learn how to identify the Heliotropiaceae family with morphology photos

Some Heliotropiaceae Species Found in North America

Euploca convolvulacea flowers are more like the Convolvulaceae than the Heliotropiaceae family.

Euploca convolvulacea—Phlox Heliotrope

This small annual grows up to 30 cm tall with small, fragrant white flowers that resemble the Convolvulaceae family, which is where its species name comes from. It is native mostly to the southwestern and south-central United States and south into northern Mexico. This one was in Oklahoma.

Euploca procumbens scorpioid inflorescence showing it elongating as it flowers, common in the Heliotropiaceae

Euploca procumbens—Fourspike Heliotrope

This low-growing, hairy annual grows up to 50 cm tall but is more often procumbent. It has narrow scorpioid cymes of small white flowers. It is common and widespread throughout the tropical and subtropical Americas, especially common in Mexico and northwards into the central United States.

Scorpioid inflorescence of Heliotropium angiospermum from Sinaloa, Mexico

Heliotropium angiospermum—Scorpion’s Tail

This annual or short-lived perennial herb/sub-shrub has scorpioid inflorescences, typically rugose leaves, and can grow up to about 1 m tall. It is native throughout Mexico, Central America, the Antilles, northern South America, and in the USA in Texas and Florida.

Rugose leaves and scorpioid inflorescence of Heliotropium indicum, an introduced species in North America

Heliotropium indicum—Indian Heliotrope

This erect, branched annual with hairy stems and egg-shaped leaves can grow up to 50 cm tall and has small white or purple flowers. It is native to Asia but has been widely introduced to Africa, the southeastern USA, Mexico, the Antilles, Central America, and South America.

Tournefortia aka Heliotropium hartwegiana scorpioid cymes, common in the Heliotropiaceae family

Heliotropium hartwegiana—Formerly Tournefortia hartwegiana

This wild plant is sometimes confused with the garden heliotrope. However, it is native to seasonally dry tropical or subtropical regions of Mexico and may also be found in extreme southern Arizona in the United States. It has congested scorpioid cymes with white or light flowers and rough-textured leaves.

Scientific Botanical Description of the Heliotropiaceae

Habit & Leaf Form of the Heliotropiaceae Family

The Heliotropiaceae family is a variable family in terms of form, including annual or perennial herbs, vines, subshrubs, shrubs, and small trees with a pubescent indumentum that is often strigose, sericeous, or rarely glandular.

The leaves are simple, alternately arranged, petiolate or sessile, with entire margins or rarely crenate or dentate, but often revolute or conduplicate. The lamina may be linear, elliptic, ovate to suborbicular, and the surfaces are often hispid to pubescent hairy and may be rugose or succulent.

Flowers of the Heliotropiaceae Family

The inflorescences are terminal or axillary thyrsoids, with most having distinct scorpioid cymose inflorescences, but sometimes they are absent. Flowers are bisexual (rarely unisexual), 5-merous, and possess a calyx that is mostly divided almost to the base, forming a short tube and a campanulate shape. The calyx is usually pubescent, and the aestivation is valvate.

The corolla is often white but can also appear in yellow, blue, pink, or orange. It is sympetalous with lobes that are linear to uborbicular. Aestivation is valvate (or nearly so), apert-duplicative, imbricate, or rarely quincuncial or cochlear.

Androecium of the Heliotropiaceae Family

The Heliotropiaceae have 5 stamens with filaments that are adnate to the corolla tube, with anthers usually included and not easily visible.

Gynoecium of the Heliotropiaceae Family

The gynoecium is bicarpellate, with a usually 4-locular ovary that is often deeply lobed, similar to the Boraginaceae. However, the style is terminal with a conical stigmatic head with a basal ring-shaped stigma and a sterile tip that is sometimes 2-lobed and a nectar disc present at the ovary base. The unique conical stigmatic heads are a synapomorphy for this family, which, when seen in a scorpioid inflorescence, are useful in making a positive identification

Fruit of the Heliotropiaceae Family

The fruit of the Heliotropiaceae may be fleshy drupes or dry schizocarps. Fruits are usually 4-seeded (rarely with 1–2 seeds), separating into 1–4 nutlets with 1–2 seeds each, but sometimes sterile chambers are also present.

Taxonomy of Heliotropiaceae

There are about 450 species in 4-6 genera in the Heliotropiaceae family in the Boraginales order of the core eudicots (dicots), depending on how the genera have been split or lumped. This family was historically treated as distinct from Boraginaceae until it was included as a subfamily, Heliotropioideae. It has also been included in the Ehretieae tribe within that now older definition of the Boraginaceae family. A 2016 revision, however, confirmed its status as a distinct family. For more information on the justification of this split, I strongly encourage you to check out Luebert et al. (2016) in the references below. For now, I am giving ranges of species and including Tournefortia which has mostly been placed in other genera, but until the sources can all agree, I am keeping it separate for now.

Genera of the Heliotropiaceae Family:

Euploca (66-172), Heliotropium (254-345), Ixorhea (1), Myriopus (15-25), and Tournefortia (67-106 most now included in Heliotropium, but some are in Myriopus).

Key Differences From Similar Families

The Heliotropiaceae were until recently a subfamily of the Boraginaceae, which is also known for its scorpioid cymes. However, the Boraginaceae is known for having more bristly and glandular hairs, and its usually deeply lobed ovary has a single gynobasic style rather than a terminal one with a cone-shaped stigma. Also, Boraginaceae mostly produce indehiscent nutlets instead of drupes with 4 stones or dry schizocarps.

The Hydrophyllaceae were another recent split from the Boraginaceae. They have scorpioid inflorescences but are mostly blue-to-violet in color, and they have a style with 2 stigmatic branches. They also produce dry capsules rather than drupes or schizocarps.

The Ehretiaceae are mostly shrubs and trees, with a terminal style with a bifid stigma, which could be confused with woody Heliotropiaceae. However, Ehretiaceae thyrsoidal inflorescences are not typically coiled like the Heliotropiaceae, and their fruits are mostly fleshy drupes.

The Cordiaceae is another recent split, but these are also mostly trees and shrubs with characteristic 4-lobed stigmas that make them easy to distinguish.

Distribution of Heliotropiaceae

The Heliotropiaceae have a worldwide distribution, nearly cosmopolitan with the noticeable exception of northern cool temperate climates, being mostly concentrated pantropically and in the subtropics. In the Americas, the family is found from southern Canada in the prairie provinces all the way south to the Patagonia region at the southern end of South America.

Distribution of Heliotropiaceae in the Americas

Canadian Genera Include:

Heliotropium 1 sp. is native to AB, SK, and MB.

USA Genera Include:

Euploca ~10 spp. are recognized on POWO and WFO as being present and native in most of the southern half of the states, but USDA-NRCS still says it is a synonym of Heliotropium; Heliotropium 23 spp., both native and intro to most of the USA, inc. HI, but excluding MN, MI, and WI; Tournefortia 2 spp. native in TX and FL, but these are sometimes classified under Myriopus.

Mexico Genera Include:

Euploca ~9 spp. native to all of Mexico, including 7 endemics; Heliotropium (including former Tournefortia) ~24 spp. native to all of Mexico; Myriopus 4? Mexico and neoendemic spp. native throughout Mexico. 

Neotropical Genera Include:

Euploca at least 30 spp., mostly endemics, found throughout CAM, the Antilles, and all of SAM except for Chile; Heliotropium 50-60 spp. (inc. former Tournefortia) native throughout the Antilles, CAM, and SAM; Ixorhea monospecific endemic of NW Argentina; Myriopus 25 mostly Mexican and neoendemic spp., is native from Mexico S through CAM, the Antilles, and tropical SAM to N Argentina, excluding N Chile.

Patagonia Genera Include:

Euploca 2? spp. are native to C+S Argentina; Heliotropium 1-2 spp. are native throughout the Patagonia region.

Additional Information and References

  • Visit Lyrae’s Dictionary of Botanical Terms to learn the terminology of botanists. Note that if you hover over most of the words in the articles, you can also get their definitions there.
  • Willis, Lyrae (Unpublished). Plant Families of North America. This source is where all of the family descriptions come from. Below should be most of my references for this project, along with my own personal observations throughout North America.
  • Alawfi, M. S., Alzahrani, D. A., & Albokhari, E. J. (2024). Complete Plastome Genomes of Three Medicinal Heliotropiaceae Species: Comparative Analyses and Phylogenetic Relationships. BMC plant biology, 24(1), 654. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12870-024-05388-8.
  • Canadensys: Acadia University, Université de Montréal Biodiversity Centre, University of Toronto Mississauga, University of British Columbia. http://data.canadensys.net/explorer (accessed 2020 – current).
  • FNA (1993+). Flora of North America. https://floranorthamerica.org/Main_Page. Accessed 2022-current.
  • GBIF.org (2020+), GBIF Home Page. Available from: https://www.gbif.org
  • iNaturalist.org (2020+). https://www.inaturalist.org/. Accessed 2020-current.
  • Luebert, F., Cecchi, L., Frohlich, M. W., Gottschling, M., Guilliams, C. M., Hasenstab-Lehman, K. E., Hilger, H. H., Miller, J. S., Mittelbach, M., Nazaire, M., Nepi, M., Nocentini, D., Ober, D., Olmstead, R. G., Selvi, F., Simpson, M. G., Sutorý, K., Valdés, B., Walden, G. K., & Weigend, M. (2016). Familial Classification of the Boraginales. axon, 65(3), 502–522. https://plants.sdsu.edu/amsinckiinae/pdfs/Luebert_etal2016-Boraginales.pdf.
  • Naturalista: CONABIO http://www.naturalista.mx (Accessed 2020–current).
  • Neotropikey: Milliken, W., Klitgård, B., & Baracat, A. eds. (2009+). Neotropikey: Interactive key and information resources for flowering plants of the Neotropics. www.kew.org/neotropikey.com (accessed 2020 – current).
  • Patagonia Wildflowers: Wildflower Identification Site. https://patagoniawildflowers.org/ Accessed throughout the fall of 2020.
  • POWO (2019+). Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet: http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/
  • Stevens, P. F. (2001+). Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 14, July 2017 [more or less continuously updated since]. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/
  • USDA, NRCS. 2020. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 2 June 2020). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC, USA; Accessed 2020-present.
  • Watson, L., and Dallwitz, M.J. (1992+). The Families of Flowering Plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval. Version: 2nd May 2020. delta-intkey.com. Accessed spring through fall of 2020.
  • WFO (2022): World Flora Online. Published on the Internet: http://www.worldfloraonline.org. Accessed Spring 2022 – current

My Current Plant Family Education Fundraiser

I am currently seeking funding to expand my website and SEO capabilities as I keep adding new families, and I am also looking to invest in a new macro lens, as I will soon be adding floral dissections to the families as they become available to me. You can donate to help support native plant education using the GoFundMe link, also at the bottom of the page.

Copyright Information

The information and the photos on this site are free to use for educational purposes, with proper attribution. For other uses, please contact me first.

You can cite this site as follows: Willis, Lyrae (2020+). Lyrae’s Nature Blog – Plant Families of North America. https://lyraenatureblog.com/. Accessed [Enter Date].

27 Apr, 2026

26 Apr, 2026

How to Identify the Hydrophyllaceae Family

Phacelia integrifolia scorpioid inflorescences with purple flowers are common among the Hydrophyllaceae family.
Phaclia integrifolia scorpioid inflorescences with purple flowers, common in the Hydrophyllaceae family
Page Last Updated May 5, 2026.

Introduction to the Hydrophyllaceae Family

When you learn to identify the Hydrophyllaceae family, you will quickly see some of their similarities with the Boraginaceae, which they were once included as a subfamily of until 2016.

Of all the small families split out of the Boraginaceae, this one looks the most like it, with its pretty blue and purple scorpioid cymes, especially my favorite genus Phacelia. I love their flowers, but I also love the stiff, often glandular hairs, divided leaves, and the interesting scents of the foliage in certain species, which some may consider unpleasant, but then again, for some reason I have always been biased; I tend to love smelly plants.

Common Botanical Description of the Hydrophyllaceae Family

If you’re new to plant morphology, this guide is a perfect beginner’s description, with no need to know any scientific jargon. Below this section is additional information on uses and morphology photos to help you identify the family, followed by pictures of individual species found in North America. But for researchers or those wanting to learn a more in-depth version, refer to the Scientific Botanical Description below the images for highly detailed scientific descriptions and genus-level distribution data.

Leaves and Stems of the Hydrophyllaceae: They are always herbs that grow from taproots and are often stiff or sticky-hairy and may have a noticeable scent (pleasant or not). The leaves are found on stems and at the base, rarely one or the other, and are simple (undivided) or, more often, divided into pairs of leaflets in a compound leaf and may be arranged in opposite pairs or alternately along the stem. Leaf margins may be smooth, toothed, or lobed.

Flowers of the Hydrophyllaceae: Flowers contain both male (stamens) and female (ovary, style, stigma) parts in the same flower (bisexual). They are typically arranged in coiled clusters, and their parts are typically in 5s with 5 petals and a fused calyx with 5 lobes. The flowers are often blue to violet in color and often have scaly appendages inside their tubes.

Reproductive Features of the Hydrophyllaceae: There are 5 stamens, often attached inside the floral tube with widened or appendaged bases. The ovary is superior (sits above the attachment of the petals) with a single terminal style that is usually divided into 2 lobes.

Fruits of the Hydrophyllaceae: The fruits are dry capsules that typically split apart on two valves to release their seeds.

Uses of Hydrophyllaceae 

Several members of the Hydrophyllaceae are used ornamentally, especially in shade gardens, as well as for pollinator gardens and for use in erosion control. They also produce edible young shoots and roots that were historically used by Native Americans (e.g., Hydrophyllum species) and were also used medicinally for treating mouth sores and diarrhea.

Wildlife & Ecological Values of the Hydrophyllaceae Family

The Hydrophyllaceae family provides important nectar and pollen for native pollinators like bumblebees and long-tongued bees. They also are important early-season food sources and many aid in ecological succession by stabilizing soils and slopes.

Morphology of Hydrophyllaceae in North America

So far, I have only photographed the Phacelia genus, which is the most common and representative genus in the family, so all of these morphology photos are from that genus.

Learn how to identify the Hydrophyllaceae family with these morphology photos
Learn how to identify the Hydrophyllaceae family with these morphology photos

Some Hydrophyllaceae Species Found in North America

Phacelia bipinnatifida showy purple flower from Georgia, USA

Phacelia bipinnatifida—Purple Phacelia

The purple phacelia is a biennial herb up to 61 cm tall with showy rotate lavender-blue flowers up to 2 cm across, with appendaged stamens that often look fuzzy. It is typically found growing in cool moist woods and is native to the southeastern United States; this one was in a forest in Georgia.

Phacelia congesta or Blue curls showing scorpioid cymes common to the Hydrophyllaceae but in this case they are deeply congested

Phacelia congesta—Blue Curls

Blue curls is a leafy annual or biennial 30-90 cm tall with purple to lavender-blue deeply lobed flowers with stamens that extend beyond the lobes. Flowers occur in heavily congested scorpioid cymes, which uncurl as the flowers bloom. Leaves are deeply cut and may appear rough. It is native to New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas in the United States and south into northern Mexico.

Phacelia crenulata scorpioid inflorescence of pinkish-purple flowers

Phacelia crenulata—Notch Leaf Scorpionweed

This species is an aromatic annual, up to 80 cm tall, coated with stiff, glandular hairs. Leaves are oblong with wavy edges and get smaller up the stem. Flowers are purple or blue and may have a white throat. Stamens and style extend past the flower lobes. This native species has a disjunct distribution, found in the southwestern USA and northern Mexico but also in Peru, Bolivia, and Chile in South America.

Phacelia hirsuta plant with flowers showing its hirsute hairs common in the Hydrophyllaceae family

Phacelia hirsuta—Fuzzy Phacelia

Fuzzy phacelia is a small native annual known for its dense covering of stiff but non-glandular hairs. It only grows to about 45 cm tall, may or may not be branched, and the leaves are alternately arranged and deeply lobed to pinnately compound. This cute little Phacelia is an endemic native of the south-central United States; I found this one in Arkansas.

Phacelia integrifolia flowers closeup showing exserted stamens and bifid stigmas (two long points), common features in the Hydrophyllaceae family

Phacelia integrifolia—Gypsum Phacelia

People often easily identify this native Phacelia by its glandular hairs, which most find malodorous (but not me!) and sticky to the touch. It has leafy stems with simple leaves with crenate margins that often fold to the back of the leaf. It has the usual purplish to bluish scorpioid cymes of the family. It is native to the southwestern and south-central USA and northern Mexico, but most populations appear to be concentrated around New Mexico.

Phacelia linearis with saucer-shaped pink flowers but unusual linear leaves

Phacelia linearis—Linearleaf Phacelia

This Phacelia is native to the Pacific Northwest of the USA and British Columbia and Alberta, Canada. It is easily identified by its location as well as its linear leaves, which are not common in the genus and are just visible (blurry) beneath the flower in this photo.

Phacelia popei herbaceous annual, common among the Hydrophyllaceae, this one growing in the moisture of a septic field in a desert in New Mexico.

Phacelia popei—Pope’s Phacelia

This lovely Phacelia is one of my favorites, for its intense purple (sometimes pink) flowers in the usual scorpioid cymes. It is an annual that only grows to about 40 cm tall with leaves that range from “normal” to rather wide and pinnately divided. It is a somewhat rare species, found only in New Mexico and western Texas and just south of the border into northern Mexico.

Scientific Botanical Description of the Hydrophyllaceae

Habit & Leaf Form of the Hydrophyllaceae Family

The Hydrophyllaceae are annual, biennial, or perennial herbs growing from taproots with erect to prostrate stems, usually with an indumentum that is scabrid, hispid, or glandularly hairy, and sometimes the hairs can sting (e.g., as in Phacelia) and often have noticeable scents, from pleasant to unpleasant.

Leaves are simple to bipinnately compound, basal and cauline both (rarely only one or the other), and are arranged oppositely or alternately along the stem. They can be simple, but most are usually bipinnately divided. Secondary venation is typically palmate, and there are no stipules. Lamina margins may be smooth, toothed, or lobed.

Flowers of the Hydrophyllaceae Family

Flowers are bisexual and are arranged in terminal or axillary thyrsoidal, usually helicoid or scorpioid cymes that are sometimes congested. There are generally no bracts or bracteoles.

Flowers are usually 5(4)-merous. The calyx is fused at the base or nearly to the tip, with usually 5 lobes, linear to cordate, with valvate aestivation, and is generally persistent and enlarging in fruit.

The corolla also typically has 5 lobes, is rotate to cylindric, is generally deciduous, and often has paired appendages in the tube between the filaments. The corolla is also fused into a tube with lobes, often blue or blue-violet to purple but can also be white, pink, or yellow; corolla scales are present, small, or absent, and aestivation is contorted or imbricate.

Androecium of the Hydrophyllaceae Family

There are typically 5 stamens of equal or unequal length, with filaments that are often expanded and/or lobed at the base, often with scaly appendages, and they are typically epipetalous (adnate to the corolla tube).

Gynoecium of the Hydrophyllaceae Family

The Hydrophyllaceae gynoecium usually comprises a superior ovary, 1-2 carpels, with 2 swollen placentas with axile or (stalked) parietal placentation; usually placentation is intrusive parietal. Sometimes the ovary may appear 2-5-chambered via the intrusive, swollen placenta, but it does not appear lobed or only shallowly so. A nectar disc is often present at the ovary base, but it is sometimes reduced to glands. There is 1 terminal style, usually divided about halfway with punctate, capitate, or capitate-funneliform stigmas. There are 2 to many ovules that are epi-/apo-/pleurotropous, with integuments ca. 6 (-12) cells across.

Fruit of the Hydrophyllaceae Family

The fruit is always a dry membraneous capsule; it may be septicidal or loculicidal, generally with 2 valves, 1 to many seeds. Part of the persistent calyx is adnate to the fruit. Seeds ruminate by the inpushing of the exotestal cells/endothelium; exotestal cells are thickened on inner and radial walls; endotestal cells are persistent. The endosperm is variously copious to scanty.

Taxonomy of Hydrophyllaceae

There are about 320 species in 12 (16) genera in the Hydrophyllaceae family in the Boraginales order of the core eudicots (dicots). This family has been treated as distinct from Boraginaceae and then as the Hydrophylloideae subfamily of it. However, a 2016 revision based on modern phylogenetics has confirmed its status as a distinct family, including the removal of the Namaeae as its own family, the Namaeceae. For more information, check out Luebert et al. (2016) in the references for a great explanation and justification of the split. ‌

Genera of the Hydrophyllaceae:

Draperia (1), Ellisia (1), Emmenanthe (1), Eucrypta (2), Hesperochiron (2), Howellanthus (?), Hydrophyllum (10), Nemophila (13), Phacelia (206), Pholistoma (3), Romanzoffia (5), and Tricardia (1).

Key Differences From Similar Families

The Hydrophyllaceae had been included as a subfamily of Boraginaceae before, though it has recently been made a separate family again. They have very similar-looking scorpioid inflorescences in similar blue-to-violet colors. However, their fruits differ because Hydrophyllaceae always produce a dry, dehiscent capsule, while the Boraginaceae mostly produce indehiscent nutlets, and the Boraginaceae typically have a deeply 4-lobed ovary with a gynobasic style, while the Hydrophyllaceae have a mostly unlobed ovary with a terminal style with 1-2 stigmatic branches.

The Heliotropiaceae has also recently been split out of the Boraginaceae, and it too has scorpioid cymes. However, it can be distinguished from the Hydrophyllaceae by its terminal style with a unique cone-shaped stigmatic head and basal ring-shaped stigma that may be sterile at the tip (the stigma is not terminal) and fruits that are mostly fleshy drupes with 4 stones or are dry schizocarps.

The Namaeceae was, until recently, included as a tribe when the Hydrophyllaceae was the Hydrophylloideae subfamily in the Boraginaceae, but it too has now received family status. This small family is mostly shrubs or small trees (with the exception of Nama which is herbaceous), and they have only simple, cauline leaves, not basal. They also have 2 stylodia, or their style is united for 3/4 of its length with two stigmatic branches.

The Ehretiaceae and Cordiaceae are also recent splits from the Boraginaceae, but these families are both mostly shrubs and trees instead of herbs, and both mostly produce fleshy drupes for their fruits instead of dry capsules.

Distribution of Hydrophyllaceae

The Hydrophyllaceae are a family primarily located in western North America and western South America, from Arctic Alaska south through to southern Patagonia. They are especially common in drier areas of southwestern North America. While less common, they can also be found in eastern North America, but not eastern South America. The Hydrophyllaceae are not naturally found outside of the Americas but the Phacelia have been introduced to parts of Europe and Asia.

Distribution of Hydrophyllaceae in the Americas

Canadian Genera Include:

Ellisia monospecific NAM endemic native from BC east to ON; Hesperochiron 1 W NAM endemic sp. native to BC; Hydrophyllum 5 NAM endemics native to S Canada excluding SK and the maritime provinces; Nemophila 3 former NAM endemics native to BC and AB; Phacelia 13 spp. native to most of Canada except NU, QC, and the maritime provinces; Romanzoffia 2 W NAM endemics native to BC and AB.

USA Genera Include:

Draperia monospecific endemic of CA; Ellisia monospecific NAM endemic, and native to most of the central and eastern USA; Emmenanthe monospecific NAM endemic native CA, NV, UT, and AZ; Eucrypta 2 S NAM endemic spp. native to CA, NV, UT, AZ, NM, and TX; Hesperochiron 1 W NAM endemic sp. native to the western half of the US, E to MN, CO, and AZ; Howellanthus monospecific NAM endemic native to CA (Syn. of Phacelia?); Hydrophyllum 10 NAM endemics native to all of the continental states except for ME, TX, and FL; Nemophila 11 former NAM endemics native to most of the W USA and the SE USA; Phacelia 172 spp. native to all of the USA except FL; Pholistoma 3 S NAM endemics native to OR, CA, NV, and AZ; Romanzoffia 5 NAM endemics native to WA, ID, MT, OR, and CA; Tricardia monspecific USA endemic of CA, NV, UT, and AZ.

Mexico Genera Include:

Emmenanthe monospecific NAM endemic native to NW Mexico; Eucrypta 2 S NAM endemic spp. native to NW Mexico; Hesperochiron 1 W NAM endemic sp. native to NW Mexico; Nemophila 1? sp. NAM endemics native to NW Mexico; Phacelia many, ~100?? spp. native throughout Mexico; Pholistoma 3 S NAM endemic spp. native to NW Mexico.

Neotropical Genera Include:

Phacelia ~9 spp. native to Guatemala, Argentina, Bolivia, Peru, Uruguay, and Chile.

Patagonia Genera Include:

Phacelia ~5-7 spp. native throughout the Patagonia region.

Additional Information and References

  • Visit Lyrae’s Dictionary of Botanical Terms to learn the terminology of botanists. Note that if you hover over most of the words in the articles, you can also get definitions from them there.
  • Willis, Lyrae (Unpublished). Plant Families of North America. This is where all of the family descriptions come from. Below should be most of my references for this, along with my own personal observations throughout North America.
  • Canadensys: Acadia University, Université de Montréal Biodiversity Centre, University of Toronto Mississauga, University of British Columbia. http://data.canadensys.net/explorer (accessed 2020 – current)
  • FNA (1993+). Flora of North America. https://floranorthamerica.org/Main_Page. Accessed 2022-current.
  • GBIF.org (2020+), GBIF Home Page. Available from: https://www.gbif.org
  • iNaturalist.org (2020+). https://www.inaturalist.org/. Accessed 2020-current.
  • Luebert, F., Cecchi, L., Frohlich, M. W., Gottschling, M., Guilliams, C. M., Hasenstab-Lehman, K. E., Hilger, H. H., Miller, J. S., Mittelbach, M., Nazaire, M., Nepi, M., Nocentini, D., Ober, D., Olmstead, R. G., Selvi, F., Simpson, M. G., Sutorý, K., Valdés, B., Walden, G. K., & Weigend, M. (2016). Familial Classification of the Boraginales. axon, 65(3), 502–522. https://plants.sdsu.edu/amsinckiinae/pdfs/Luebert_etal2016-Boraginales.pdf.
  • ‌Naturalista: CONABIO http://www.naturalista.mx (Accessed 2020–current).
  • Neotropikey: Milliken, W., Klitgård, B., & Baracat, A. eds. (2009+). Neotropikey: Interactive key and information resources for flowering plants of the Neotropics. www.kew.org/neotropikey.com (accessed 2020 – current).
  • Patagonia Wildflowers: Wildflower Identification Site. https://patagoniawildflowers.org/ Accessed throughout the fall of 2020.
  • POWO (2019+). Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet: http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/
  • Stevens, P. F. (2001+). Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 14, July 2017 [more or less continuously updated since]. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/
  • USDA, NRCS. 2020. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 2 June 2020). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC, USA; Accessed 2020-present.
  • Walden, Genevieve K., Robert W. Patterson & Richard R. Halse. (2023), Hydrophyllaceae, in Jepson Flora Project (eds.) Jepson eFlora, Revision 12, https://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/eflora/eflora_display.php?tid=157, accessed on April 25, 2026.
  • Watson, L., and Dallwitz, M.J. (1992+). The Families of Flowering Plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval. Version: 2nd May 2020. delta-intkey.com. Accessed spring through fall of 2020.
  • WFO (2022): World Flora Online. Published on the Internet: http://www.worldfloraonline.org. Accessed Spring 2022 – current

My Current Plant Family Education Fundraiser

I am currently seeking funding to expand my website and SEO capabilities as I keep adding new families, and I am also looking to invest in a new macro lens, as I will soon be adding floral dissections to the families as they become available to me. You can donate to help support native plant education using the GoFundMe link, also at the bottom of the page.

Copyright Information

The information and the photos on this site are free to use for educational purposes, with proper attribution. For other uses, please contact me first.

You can cite this site as follows: Willis, Lyrae (2020+). Lyrae’s Nature Blog – Plant Families of North America. https://lyraenatureblog.com/. Accessed [Enter Date].

26 Apr, 2026

25 Apr, 2026

How to Identify the Ehretiaceae Family

Tiquilia canescens Shrubby Tiquilia - Learn to identify the Ehretiaceae family
Tiquilia canescens aka Shrubby Tiquilia, a native Ehretiaceae of North America.
Page Last Updated April 26, 2026

Introduction to the Ehretiaceae Family

The Ehretiaceae are a small family that was only somewhat recently (2016) pulled out of the closely related Boraginaceae family. I only discovered this somewhat recently since so many sources still refer to it as a subfamily of the Borage Family instead. This guide explains how to identify the Ehretiaceae family and how they differ from the new, narrower definition of the Boraginaceae.

My only experience with this mostly tropical family is with Tiquilia, which is a lovely, low-growing herb that is relatively common in the dry soils of the American Southwest. It has pretty, almost succulent leaves, and I always thought it would make a nice ground cover in a xeriscape. However, this means that all of my photos are of that genus. For people living in North America, this is by far the most common member of this family that you will see, although there are other shrubby, small tree, and parasitic species, especially once you get into Mexico. I will add more as I find them!  

Common Botanical Description of the Ehretiaceae Family

If you’re new to plant morphology, this guide is a perfect beginner’s description for learning to identify the Ehretiaceae family without needing to know any scientific jargon. Below this section is additional information on uses and morphology, followed by pictures of individual species found in North America. But for researchers or those wanting to learn a more in-depth version, refer to the Scientific Botanical Description below the images for highly detailed scientific descriptions and genus-level distribution data.

Leaves and Stems of the Ehretiaceae: This family is mostly woody shrubs or trees, often with fibrous bark and whitish twigs, but perennial herbs and parasitic plants that don’t use chlorophyll are also seen. Leaves are simple (not compound) and arranged alternately along the stem on stalks, although sometimes they are reduced to tiny scales. Margins may be smooth or sometimes with rounded teeth.

Flowers of the Ehretiaceae: Flowers usually have both male (stamens) and female (ovary, stigma, and style) parts in the same flower (bisexual), but occasionally separate male and female flowers are seen on separate male and female plants (called dioecious). Flowers and sepals are usually fused at the base with 5 lobes.

Reproductive Features of the Ehretiaceae: There are typically 5 stamens that often stick out past the throat of the flower tube and are sometimes attached to the petals. The ovary is usually surrounded by a nectary disk, and it has a style on top that is typically divided into 2 branches.

Fruits of the Ehretiaceae: Fruits are mostly drupes (think of a cherry with their stony pits) with 1-2-seeded stones or 4 nutlets.

Uses of Ehretiaceae 

The Ehretiaceae, especially the Ehretia genus, are widely used for medicine (pain, fever, and dysentery), timber and furniture, and their edible drupes, especially in Asia, Africa, and parts of the Americas. They are used for treating ailments like fever, dysentery, and pain, with wood for furniture and edible fruits.

Morphology of Ehretiaceae in North America

As I currently only have the herbaceous-looking Tiquilia genus, which is not particularly representative of the family, I will add morphology photos when I acquire more photos.

Some Ehretiaceae Species Found in North America

Tiquilia canescens Shrubby Tiquilia from near Carlsbad National Park

Tiquilia canescens—Shrubby Tiquilia

The shrubby tiquilia looks a lot more like an herb, but technically you could call it a shrub or sub-shrub because it is woody at the base. It is a short, very low-growing, spreading plant with gray-green, fleshy, egg-shaped leaves that look almost succulent and are often rather congested on its branches. Its 5-lobed tubular flowers are white to pinkish. It is native to the American Southwest in California, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, New Mexico, and Texas and in Northern Mexico in Chihuahua, Sonora, and Baja California.

Tiquilia greggii Plumed Crinklemat in flower, Dog Canyon, New Mexico.

Tiquilia greggii—Plumed Crinklemat

The plumed crinklemat is another herbaceous-looking low-growing shrub, generally with wider internodes, giving it a more spindly appearance. The leaves are also gray-green and somewhat succulent, but what stands out most are the feathery calyxes that appear in rounded masses with usually only 1-2 flowers blooming at a time. The feathery calyx apparently persists and assists in dispersing the seeds. This one is more rare, and in the United States it is only found in southern New Mexico and the southwestern corner of Texas, being most common throughout northern and central Mexico instead.

Scientific Botanical Description of the Ehretiaceae

Learn to identify the Ehretiaceae family based on its new narrow definition after being removed from the Boraginaceae.

Habit & Leaf Form of the Ehretiaceae Family

This family is mostly woody shrubs or trees, often with fibrous bark, oxidizing stems, and whitish twigs and rarely with thorns (Rochefortia). Perennial herbs are also seen, especially Tiquilia. The indumentum is variable from hirsute to glabrescent. Also, plants in the Pholismateae tribe are achlorphyllous root parasites with glandular hairs and leaves that are reduced to scales.

Leaves are simple, alternately arranged, petiolate, with margins that are entire to crenate, or occasionally dissected (in Cortesia), and without stipules. In achlorophyllous root parasites, the leaves are typically reduced to scales.

Flowers of the Ehretiaceae Family

Inflorescences are axillary or sometimes terminal, usually laxly cymose or thyrsoidal, sometimes congested, and occasionally in few-flowered corymbs or solitary. In parasitic plants, they are condensed and more or less capitate.

Flowers are mostly bisexual, although occasionally plants are dioecious (Lepidocordia and Rochefortia). Flowers are 5-merous, usually with radial symmetry. The often long, persistent calyx has 5 lobes, fused or may be free to the base; aestivation is quincuncial or sometimes imbricate. The corolla is sympetalous and tubular with 5 spreading lobes; it is usually rotate, campanulate, or urceolate; aestivation is imbricate, and they are white, red, or sometimes blue.

Androecium of the Ehretiaceae Family

There are 5 stamens that are often epipetalous, fused to the floral tube at least at the base, and may be puberulent at the base; anthers are generally exserted.

Gynoecium of the Ehretiaceae Family

The ovary is bicarpellate, 1-4-locular from secondary division, superior, and generally subtended by a disk-like nectary. There is a bifid terminal style with an elongated clavate to capitate stigma. Placentation is apical to axile. There is usually 1 fertile ovule per carpel, apotropous, with integument 6-12 cells across, and epidermal cells anticlinally elongated or not. Parasitic members may have 10 or more ovules.

Fruit of the Ehretiaceae Family

Fruits are drupes, often surrounded by a persistent, accrescent calyx. They often dry and separate into 2 2-seeded pyrenes, 4 1-seeded pyrenes or schizocarps, or 4 nutlets. Seeds often have copious endosperm, but some seeds have none.

Taxonomy of Ehretiaceae

There are about 155 species in 10(7) genera in the Ehretiaceae family in the Boraginales order of the core eudicots (dicots). The Ehretiaceae family has frequently been treated as a subfamily of the Boraginaceae. A 2016 revision by the Boraginales Working Group, however, confirmed its status as a distinct family, and this is what is also listed on the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, which I use as my most current authoritative source. This definition of the Ehretiaceae includes the Lennoaceae nested within it.

Genera:

Bourreria (52), Cortesia (?), Ehretia (66), Halgania (16), Keraunea (5), Lennoa (1), Lepidocordia (2), Pholisma (3), Rochefortia (9), and Tiquilia (28).

Key Differences From Similar Families

The Ehretiaceae was recently split from the Boraginaceae, but the Boraginaceae can be distinguished by usually being herbs and virtually always having a gynobasic style rather than a terminal one in the Ehretiaceae.

The Cordiaceae was also recently split from the Boraginaceae, and it too is mostly woody trees and shrubs with fleshy drupes, but they have characteristic 4-lobed rather than bifid stigmas; if they do have 2 stigmatic branches, then the fruit is enclosed in an accrescent calyx.

The Heliotropiaceae has also recently been split out of the Boraginaceae family, but it’s a family of more herbs or subshrubs. However, it does have some trees that also produce drupes and could be confused. But, it can usually be distinguished by its often deeply lobed ovary and unique cone-shaped stigma.

Distribution of Ehretiaceae

The Ehretiaceae are a mostly tropical and subtropical family throughout the tropics, though noticeably absent from eastern South America. There is also a strong presence of this family in the arid American Southwest.

Distribution of Ehretiaceae in the Americas

Canadian Genera Include:

Absent.

USA Genera Include:

Bourreria 3 spp. native to FL; Ehretia 1sp. native in TX; Pholisma 2 S NAM endemic spp. native in CA and AZ; Tiquilia 9 spp. native in all of W half of the USA, except for MT, also in MO.

Mexico Genera Include:

Bourreria 16 spp. native to all of Mexico; Ehretia 4 spp. native to all of Mexico; Lennoa monospecific endemic to Mexico and the N neotropics; Lepidocordia 1 N neoendemic sp. native to SW and SE Mexico; Pholisma 3 S NAM endemic spp. native to northern Mexico; Rochefortia 1 sp. native to much of Mexico except NW and C; Tiquilia ~12 spp native throughout all of Mexico.  

Neotropical Genera Include:

Bourreria ~30? spp. native CAM, Antilles, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador; Ehretia ~3 spp. native in CAM, Antilles, N+E Brazil, and N Argentina; Keraunea 5 spp. endemic to eastern Brazil; Lennoa monospecific endemic of Mexico, CAM, Colombia, and Venezuela; Lepidocordia 2 N neoendemic spp. native to Mexico, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Venezuela, Guyana, and N Brazil; Rochefortia 9 neoendemic spp. native to Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Antilles, Colombia, Venezuela, and Peru; Tiquilia ~20 spp. native to Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, N Chile, and NW+S Argentina, including 4? narrow endemics of the Galapagos.

Patagonia Genera Include:

Tiquilia 1? sp. native to S Argentina.

Additional Information and References

  • Visit Lyrae’s Dictionary of Botanical Terms to learn the terminology of botanists. Note that if you hover over most of the words in the articles, you can also get definitions from them there.
  • Willis, Lyrae (Unpublished). Plant Families of North America. This is where all of the family descriptions come from. Below should be most of my references for this, along with my own personal observations throughout North America.
  • Canadensys: Acadia University, Université de Montréal Biodiversity Centre, University of Toronto Mississauga, University of British Columbia. http://data.canadensys.net/explorer (accessed 2020 – current)
  • Watson, L., and Dallwitz, M.J. (1992+). The Families of Flowering Plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval. Version: 2nd May 2020. delta-intkey.com. Accessed spring through fall of 2020.
  • FNA (1993+). Flora of North America. https://floranorthamerica.org/Main_Page. Accessed 2022-current.
  • GBIF.org (2020+), GBIF Home Page. Available from: https://www.gbif.org
  • iNaturalist.org (2020+). https://www.inaturalist.org/. Accessed 2020-current.
  • Naturalista: CONABIO http://www.naturalista.mx (Accessed 2020–current).
  • Neotropikey: Milliken, W., Klitgård, B., & Baracat, A. eds. (2009+). Neotropikey: Interactive key and information resources for flowering plants of the Neotropics. www.kew.org/neotropikey.com (accessed 2020 – current).
  • Patagonia Wildflowers: Wildflower Identification Site. https://patagoniawildflowers.org/ Accessed throughout the fall of 2020.
  • POWO (2019+). Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet: http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/
  • Michael G. Simpson 2021, Ehretiaceae, in Jepson Flora Project (eds.) Jepson eFlora, Revision 9, https://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/eflora/eflora_display.php?tid=84713, accessed on April 24, 2026.
  • Stevens, P. F. (2001+). Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 14, July 2017 [more or less continuously updated since]. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/
  • USDA, NRCS. 2020. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 2 June 2020). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC, USA; Accessed 2020-present.
  • WFO (2022): World Flora Online. Published on the Internet: http://www.worldfloraonline.org. Accessed Spring 2022 – current

My Current Plant Family Education Fundraiser

I am currently seeking funding to expand my website and SEO capabilities as I keep adding new families, and I am also looking to invest in a new macro lens, as I will soon be adding floral dissections to the families as they become available to me. You can donate to help support native plant education using the GoFundMe link, also at the bottom of the page.

Copyright Information

The information and the photos on this site are free to use for educational purposes, with proper attribution. For other uses, please contact me first.

You can cite this site as follows: Willis, Lyrae (2020+). Lyrae’s Nature Blog – Plant Families of North America. https://lyraenatureblog.com/. Accessed [Enter Date].

25 Apr, 2026

23 Apr, 2026

How to Identify the Boraginaceae Family

Anchusa officinalis inflorescence with violet blue flowers. Learn to identify the Boraginaceae family.
Anchusa officinalis inflorescence with violet blue flowers. Learn to identify the Boraginaceae family!
Page Last Updated May 15, 2026.

Introduction to the Boraginaceae Family

The Boraginaceae family has undergone major revisions over the years, including several small families and then more recently, having them removed. This description teaches how to identify the Boraginaceae based on the currently accepted, much narrower definition of the family that excludes Heliotropiaceae, Hydrophyllaceae, and others, which I will all cover separately.

What I love about this family is their often instantly blue-to-violet flowers almost always arranged in unique clusters called “scorpioid cymes.” They are truly beautiful; I even love their coarse hairs that can cause rashes in some people, but to me, it just makes them even more beautiful. But I might be biased too, since I think all flowers are beautiful in their own way.

Common Botanical Description of the Boraginaceae Family

If you’re new to plant morphology, this common botanical description is a perfect beginner’s description for learning to identify the Boraginaceae family, with no need to know any scientific jargon not explained in the description. Below this section is additional information on uses and morphology photos to help you identify the family, followed by pictures of individual species found in North America. But for researchers or those wanting to learn a more in-depth version, refer to the Scientific Botanical Description below the images for highly detailed scientific descriptions, taxonomic information, and genus-level distribution data in North, Central, and South America.

Leaves and Stems of the Boraginaceae: Most members are herbaceous plants, with occasional woody shrubs, trees, or vines, often accompanied by characteristic coarse hairs that can cause skin reactions. The leaves vary in size but are always simple (not compound) and are usually arranged alternately along the stem; however, in rare cases, the lower leaves may be in opposite pairs. Leaves are usually thin to lance-shaped, and most have entire margins, but in rare cases they may be toothed. Another characteristic feature of the family is that the leaves never have small leaf-like appendages called stipules at their base, often seen in other families.

Flowers of the Boraginaceae: The flowers of this family are mostly bisexual, containing both male (stamens) and female (ovary, style, stigma) parts in the same flower. What is most characteristic of this and closely related families is the flowers in coiled clusters called “scorpioid cymes.” Boraginaceae flowers are usually regular, meaning they can be divided in half on multiple planes of symmetry, and contain usually 5 sepals that may be free or joined at the base into a tube and are often covered with hairs. They also have 5 petals that are usually blue or purple (but may be pink, yellow, or white) and often have a collection of scales in the throat.

Reproductive Features of the Boraginaceae: The stamens can vary, being free or joined, but there are always five fertile stamens (with pollen-producing anthers), and they are always attached in the throat of the flower. The ovary is deeply four-lobed, and there is a single style attached at its base.

Fruits of the Boraginaceae: The fruits are always non-fleshy nutlets or sometimes dry, dehiscent fruits called schizocarps that split apart when mature.

Uses of Boraginaceae 

Many members of the family are used ornamentally for their lovely flowers, while others are used medicinally, and still others are used as a natural source of dye.

Common cultivated family members include forget-me-not (Myosotis), Symphytum, Borago, and more. Many species have been introduced as ornamental plants or weeds, e.g., the genera Anchusa, Borago, Cynoglossum, Echium, Myosotis, and Symphytum.

Morphology of Boraginaceae in North America

Learn to identify the Boraginaceae family with morphology photos
Learn to identify the Boraginaceae family with morphology photos

Some Boraginaceae Species Found in North America

Boraginoideae Subfamily

Anchusa officinalis inflorescence with violet blue flowers characteristic of the Boraginaceae

Anchusa officinalis—Common Alkanet

This beautiful introduced wildflower has long, lance-shaped leaves that become smaller on shorter petioles further up the stem. Most of the plant is covered in fine, stiff hairs, and it produces deep violet-blue flowers with five spreading, rounded lobes. It is native primarily to the Mediterranean region, but also to most of Europe and western Asia. It is now an occasional introduced weed in North America, like this one growing wild not far from human settlements in Peachland, British Columbia, Canada.

Buglossoides arvensis leaves and flowers closeup

Buglossoides arvensis—Corn Gromwell

An annual herb up to 40 cm long with stems that branch from the base, producing terminal racemes of pale blue to white flowers with forward-facing hairs on the outside and narrowly lance-shaped leaves that typically have a central groove on the upper surface. Native throughout Eurasia and northern Africa but widely introduced in Canada and the United States, as well as southern South America. This one was found in a well-maintained park in Vernon, British Columbia, Canada.

Lithospermum ruderale plant with flowers closeup showing leaves and flowers

Lithospermum ruderale—Wayside Gromwell

Unlike most members of the Boraginoideae subfamily, this perennial herb is native to North America, endemic to western North America from British Columbia east to Saskatchewan in Canada and from Washington State south to California and east to Montana south to Colorado in the United States. It also produces narrowly lance-shaped leaves with fine, coarse hairs and light yellow tubular flowers. It is common in dry soil with good drainage in sunny locations in its range. This one was in Princeton, British Columbia.

Cynoglossoideae Subfamily

Andersonglossum virdinianum plant with flowers closeup

Andersonglossum virginianum—Southern Wild Comfrey

This pretty wildflower has large comfrey-like leaves that give it one of its common names. The leaves are slightly hairy and tend to clasp the hairy stem at their base. It produces pale bluish flowers on erect, branching stems that often turn a violet color as they age. This is an uncommon endemic native of the eastern United States from Texas east to Florida and north to Vermont, where it normally grows in forested areas.

Cryptantha crassisepala scorpioid inflorescence with hairs and flowers

Cryptantha crassisepala—Thick-Sepaled Cryptanth

This very hairy annual herb only grows up to about 15 cm tall, with 2-6 cm long leaves and small white flowers with very thick and hairy sepals. However, examination of fruits is often needed for a positive ID. It is a southern North American endemic from California east to Kansas and Texas as well as throughout northern Mexico. It tends to grow in arid and semi-arid locations; this one was on a roadside in New Mexico.

Oreocarya aka Cryptantha flava inflorescences with flowers

Oreocarya aka Cryptantha flava—Yellow Cryptantha

Most sources still refer to Oreocarya as a separate genus, but authoritative sources like APG and USDA now consider it a synonym for Cryptantha, so we use both names here. This narrow endemic of Colorado, Wyoming, Arizona, Utah, and New Mexico in the United States is known for its cheerful yellow flowers and thinner but still very hairy sepals. This one was in the Wilson Arch area, Utah.

Oreocarya fulvocanescens var. fulvocanescens plant with flowers showing floral appendages

Oreocarya aka Cryptantha fulvocanescens—Gray Cat’s Eye

Another lovely Cryptantha endemic to the American Southwest, this time in Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico. It has white tubular flowers with conspicuous yellow appendages in their throats and the hairy sepals we are used to seeing in the genus. This one was found growing on a dry roadside outside of Cuba, New Mexico.

Myosotis arvensis forget me nots inflorescence with flowers

Myosotis arvsenis—Field Forget-Me-Not

An annual or short-lived perennial herb with stalkless, hairy leaves and pretty inflorescences of blue flowers with white to yellow throat appendages. The flowers are in typical scorpioid cymes, but they are best visualized while the flowers are still in bud as they elongate and straighten as they bloom. This species is originally native to northern Eurasia but is now widely introduced to northern North America. This was on the side of a logging road near Sechelt, British Columbia, Canada.

Myosotis macrosperma flowers and leaves

Myosotis macrosperma—Largeseed Forget-Me-Not

An annual herb with hairy, stalkless leaves with a prominent midrib and tiny white flowers in condensed cymes with hairy sepals and green bracts. This one is a North American native found in disturbed areas throughout the southeastern United States north into southern Ontario, Canada.

Lappula occidentalis plants with flowers and fruits

Lappula occidentalis—Western Stickseed

This hairy annual has stalked basal leaves that are mostly oblong with rounded tips and narrower, stalkless stem leaves with pointed tips. They are best known for their elongated inflorescences of tiny white to pale blue flowers, followed by fruits containing four nutlets, each with a row of slender prickles. It is native throughout western North America from Alaska south to northern Mexico and east to Manitoba, Canada, and Iowa, United States, with some disjunct populations in the eastern United States.

Scientific Botanical Description of the Boraginaceae

Learn to identify the Boraginaceae family based on the newer, more narrow definition of the family.

Habit & Leaf Form of the Boraginaceae Family

Most are annual or perennial herbaceous plants from taproots with occasional woody shrubs, trees, or self-supporting (usually) vines. They are often hispid or scabrid with coarse hairs that may contain SiO₂ or CaCO₃, which can cause adverse skin reactions in sensitive individuals. They may or may not have a basal aggregation of leaves. Helophytic, mesophytic, or xerophytic.

Leaves are minute to medium-sized, usually alternate or sometimes alternate and opposite below. They are simple, flat, herbaceous, petiolate to sessile, usually non-sheathing or sometimes sheathing in basal rosettes, not gland-dotted, and epulvinate. The lamina is entire, usually narrow, linear to lanceolate. Leaves lack stipules. Lamina margins are mostly entire, rarely crenate or dentate. Domatia may be present.

Flowers of the Boraginaceae Family

Plants are usually hermaphrodites or occasionally gynodioecious (Echium), with predominantly entomophilous pollination via Hymenoptera. Flowers are usually aggregated in coiled (scorpioid) cymes that may appear doubled in some species; coiled cymes typically elongate in fruit. Rarely are flowers solitary. Inflorescences are terminal or axillary.

Flowers are bracteate or not, usually regular or irregular and somewhat zygomorphic (e.g. Echium); usually 5-merous and tetracyclic. Free hypanthium is not present. Hypogynous disk present or absent. Perianth has a distinct calyx and corolla with 10 (11–13) parts in 2 whorls; mostly isomerous or sometimes anisomerous (Plagiobothrys).

Calyx 5 (usually) or 5–8 (sometimes Plagiobothrys) in 1 whorl; they may be free or connate basally with lobes shorter to longer than the tube; the degree of gamosepaly is 0.1–0.5; often covered with trichomes. Calyx persistent; imbricate, open in bud or valvate (rarely).

Corolla 5 parts in 1 whorl, often appendiculate with a corona of scales from the throat protecting the nectar. Petals are fused into a tube with lobes shorter to longer than the tube. Corolla is imbricate or contorted; rotate, campanulate to hypocrateriform or tubular; unequal, regular, or often bilabiate in Echium. They are often blue or purple in color but may also be pink, white, or yellow.

Androecium of the Boraginaceae Family

There are 5 unbranched androecial members made of exclusively fertile stamens that are adnate midway down or in the throat of the corolla tube; all are equal or unequal, free or coherent, and 1-whorled. Stamens are not didynamous or tetradynamous; they are isomerous with the perianth, arranged opposite the sepals, with filaments, or sometimes appearing sessile, inserted or exserted. Filaments are appendiculate or not. Anthers are cohering, free, or connivent; dorsifixed to basifixed; dehiscing via longitudinal slits; introrse; tetrasporangiate; appendaged or unappendaged.

Gynoecium of the Boraginaceae Family

The gynoecium is usually 2-carpeled or 4–5 carpeled (some Trigonotis). Pistil 2- or 4-celled (usually via false septa) or 8-10-celled (via false septa in some Trigonotis). The gynoecium is syncarpous with a superior ovary that is nearly always 2 locular but often appears 4 locular via false septa. The gynoecium is median. Style 1 is always gynobasic from an often deeply 4-lobed ovary. Stigmas 1–2: when simple, they are often 2-lobed but may also be capitate or minute; nearly always dry type; papillate. Placentation is basal. The ovules are 2 per locule, usually separating into 1-ovuled portions; they are positioned horizontally to ascending, epitropous, and have a dorsal raphe.  

Fruit of the Boraginaceae Family

The fruits are primarily non-fleshy nutlets, dehiscent, indehiscent, or a schizocarp with 4 or 8–10 (sometimes Trigonotis) mericarps.

Taxonomy of Boraginaceae

There are 1,793 species in 94 genera in the Boraginaceae family in the Boraginales order of the core eudicots (dicots). This family recently underwent major revisions, including the removal of the Hydrophyllaceae, Heliotropiaceae, Cordiaceae, Ehretiaceae, and others based on modern molecular phylogenetics. As a result, many genera have changed in the family, but the genera listed immediately below are accurate as per APG IV. For more information on the justification of this split of the Boraginales, I encourage you to check out Luebert et al. (2016) in the references below.

There are 3 currently accepted subfamilies:

  1. Boraginoideae is a large subfamily concentrated in the Mediterranean region, with some also in East Asia, Africa, and South America, but it is also introduced elsewhere. They are mostly perennial herbs, some annuals, and some shrubs; their flowers typically have a single line of symmetry and basal scales, the gynobase is flat, and the nutlets have a basal attachment scar.
  2. Cynoglossoideae is the largest subfamily with a nearly cosmopolitan distribution. It is a group of mostly herbs (annual to perennial) with some shrubs, leaves with obvious secondary venation, bractless flowers, a broadly pyramidal to flat gynobase, and often compressed nutlets that are ventrally attached with a large triangular scar.
  3. Echinochiloideae is a small subfamily with only 3 genera located in Mexico, south to northeastern Argentina, plus the Canary Islands, Africa, and east to western India. They are characterized by having densely hairy corolla throats and punctate stigmas (subterminal, sterile tips, bilobed or notched) with fruits that are laterally compressed nutlets.

Genera:

Boraginoideae: Aegonychon (3), Alkanna (68), Anchusa (35), Arnebia (36), Borago (5), Brunnera (3), Buglossoides (6), Cerinthe (6), Cynoglottis (2), Cystostemon (16), Echiostachys (3), Echium (68), Gastrocotyle (3), Glandora (8), Halacsya (1), Hormuzakia (3), Huynhia (2), Lithodora (3), Lithospermum (84), Lobostemon (28), Maharanga (43), Mairetis (1), Megacaryon (1), Melanortocarya (1), Moltkia (6), Moltkiopsis (1), Moritzia (3), Neatostema (1), Nonea (46), Onosma (247), Paramoltkia (1), Pentaglottis (1), Phyllocara (1), Podonosma (4), Pontechium (1), Pulmonaria (18), Stenosolenium (1), Symphytum (27), Thaumatocaryon (2), Trachystemon (1).

Cynoglossoideae: Adelinia (1), Afrotysonia (3), Amsinckia (13), Ancistrocarya (1), Andersonglossum (3), Anoplocaryum (4), Antiotrema (1), Asperugo (1), Bothriospermum (6), Brachybotrys (1), Caccinia (4), Chionocharis (1), Craniospermum (11), Cryptantha (104), Cynoglossum (83), Dasynotus (1), Decalepidanthus (9), Eremocarya (2), Eritrichium (78), Greeneocharis (2), Gyrocaryum (1), Hackelia (56), Harpagonella (2), Heterocaryum (1?), Iberodes (5), Johnstonella (17?), Lappula (81), Lasiocaryum (3), Memoremea (1), Mertensia (52), Microcaryum (1), Microparacaryum (4), Microula (34), Mimophytum (11), Myosotidium (1), Myosotis (157), Nesocaryum (1), Nihon (5), Omphalodes (11), Oncaglossum (1), Oreocarya (67? or syn. of Cryptantha), Pectocarya (13), Plagiobothrys (64), Pseudoheterocaryum (4? or syn. Suchtelenia), Pseudolappula (1), Rochelia (22), Selkirkia (4), Solenanthus (23), Suchtelenia (6), Thyrocarpus (4), Trichodesma (38), Trigonotis (70).

Echinochiloideae: Amphibologyne (1), Antiphytum (13), Echiochilon (16), Ogastemma (1).

Key Differences From Similar Families

The Hydrophyllaceae had been included as a subfamily of Boraginaceae before, though it has recently been removed and made a separate family again. They have very similar-looking scorpioid inflorescences in similar blue-to-violet colors. However, the Hydrophyllaceae always have dry capsule fruits, while the Boraginaceae have nutlets. The ovaries and seeds also differ.

The Heliotropiaceae has also recently been split out of the family, and it too has scorpioid cymes, though not all members do. However, it can be distinguished by having fewer bristly hairs that are always eglandular, leaves that are usually conduplicate, an ovary that is still often deeply lobed but has a cone-shaped stigma, and fruits that are drupes with 4 stones or are dry schizocarps.

The Ehretiaceae is another recent split. It is a small family with only 7 genera of mostly shrubs and trees as opposed to mostly herbs, and while the Boraginaceae have a gynobasic style, most of this family (excluding Tiquilia) has a terminal style with a bifid stigma.

The Cordiaceae is another recent split, but these are also mostly trees and shrubs with characteristic 4-lobed stigmas and fleshy drupes as opposed to mostly herbs with 2-lobed stigmas and producing nutlets in the Boraginaceae.

Distribution of Boraginaceae

The Boraginaceae are a cosmopolitan family found around the tropics, warm and cool temperate, and even arctic climates, although they are predominantly found in warm temperate climates, with a strong Mediterranean concentration. In the Americas, the family is found in Canada, the USA, Mexico, Central America, and South America.

Distribution of Boraginaceae in the Americas

Canadian Genera Include:

Boraginoideae: Anchusa 3 spp. intro to all S provinces except NL; Borago 1 sp. intro to all S provinces but ephemeral in ON, QC, NS, and NL; Buglossoides 1 sp. intro to BC, MB, ON, QC, and NS; Cerinthe 1 sp. intro to QC?; Echium 2 spp. Intro to all of S Canada except Labrador; Lithospermum 8 spp. native to BC, AB, SK, MB, ON, and QC and intro NB; Nonea 2 spp. intro to AB and QC; Pulmonaria 2 spp. intro to ON, QC, and NS; Pentaglottis 1 sp. intro to BC; Symphytum 3 spp. introduced in all of S Canada except Labrador. Cynoglossoideae: Adelinia monospecific W NAM endemic native BC; Amsinckia 6 spp. native to BC and introduced to YT, AB, and SK; Andersonglossum 1 NAM endemic sp. native to all S provinces exc. Labrador, also in YT; Asperugo monospecific intro BC, AB, SK, and MB (and Greenland); Cryptantha 11 spp. native to BC, AB, and SK; Cynoglossum 1 sp. intro to all of S Canada exc. NL and PE; Eritrichium 6 spp. native to YT and NT; Hackelia 6 spp. native to all of Canada except NU, NS, PE, and NL; Lappula 2 spp. native to YT, NT, BC, AB, SK, MB, and introduced to ON, QC, NS, NB, PE, and NL; Mertensia 7 spp. native to all of Canada, including the Arctic (and Greenland); Myosotis 9 spp. native to BC, AB, YT, NT, ON, QC, NB, NS, PE, and NL and intro to SK and MB (and Greenland); Omphalodes 2 spp. intro in BC, ON, and QC; Oreocarya (or ~ Cryptantha) 1 NAM endemic native to BC, AB, and SK; Pectocarya 1 sp. native to BC; Plagiobothrys 5 spp. native to BC, AB, SK, and MB, and intro to YT, ON, QC, and NB.

USA Genera Include:

Boraginoideae: Anchusa 5 spp. intro much of USA exc. NV, AZ, NM, NE, KS, OK, MO, AR, LA, MS, AL, GA, FL, SC, IN, WV, and VT; Borago 1 sp. intro to WA, OR, CA, UT, MT, ND, MI, IL, MN, WI, TN, OH, VA, WV, MD, PA, NJ, NY, CT, RI, MA, VT, NH, and ME; Brunnera 1 sp. intro to MO, OH, and NY; Buglossoides 1 sp. intro to most of the USA, excluding NV, AZ, and NM; Echium 7 spp. intro to most of USA, including AK but excluding NV, AZ, ND, MS, AL, and FL; Lithospermum 17-21 spp. native and intro to all of the USA; Nonea 3 spp. intro to TN, PA, NY, and ME; Pulmonaria 1 sp. intro to NY, VT. Cynoglossoideae: Adelinia monospecific W NAM endemic native to WA, OR, and CA; Amsinckia 10 spp. native to W USA MT S to NM and all W, and intro to ND, NE, OK, TX, WI, IL, MS, OH, PA, NY, CT, MA, NH, ME, VA, NC, SC, AK, and HI; Andersonglossum  3 NAM endemic spp. native, inc. 1 endemic to OR and CA, 1 endemic to E USA from MN S to LA, plus ND, SD, OK, and TX, with a 3rd spp. native to SD, IA, WI, IL, IN, NJ, NY, NH, ME, and Canada; Asperugo monospecific intro to CA, CO, and IL; Bothriospermum 1 sp. intro HI; Cryptantha 82 spp. native in W USA from ND S to TX and all W, inc. MA, native and intro AK, most of which are endemic; Cynoglossum 9 spp. intro and native to the entire USA and intro to HI; Dasynotus monospecific narrow endemic of ID; Eritrichium 3 spp. native to AK, WA, OR, ID, WY, MT, CO, UT, and NM; Eremocarya 2 spp. S NAM endemic native OR, CA, NV, UT, AZ, NM, TX; Greeneocharis 2 spp. native to WA, OR, CA (1 endemic), ID, NV, AZ, UT, and CO; Hackelia 29 spp. native to almost all of the USA except FL, including AK; Harpagonella 1 S NAM endemic native to CA and AZ; Johnstonella ? spp. native to CA, NV, UT, AZ, NM, and TX; Lappula 4 spp. native and intro most of the USA, including AK, but excluding LA, MS, AL, FL, GA, and VA; Mertensia 18 spp. native to most of the USA, including AK, but exc. TX, OK, LA, and FL; Mimophytum 1 S NAM endemic sp. native to TX; Myosotis 11 spp. native and intro most of the USA, inc. AK, exc. ND, and intro in HI; Omphalodes 2 spp. native and intro OR and TX (USDA, POWO says otherwise); Oreocarya (or ~ Cryptantha) 32 NAM endemics native W USA from ND S to TX and all states W; Pectocarya 8 spp. native to WA, OR, ID, WY, CA, NV, UT, AZ, NM, and TX; Plagiobothrys 43 spp. native to WA, OR, CA (12+ endemics), ID, MT, WY, CO, NV, UT, AZ, NM, ND, SD, NE, WI, MI, IL, AR, LA, NC, PA, MA, and ME, and intro and native to AK; Symphytum 3 spp. introduced in WA, OR, CA, ID, MT, WY, UT, CO, NM, MI, WI, MN, MO, AR, TN, KY, GA, NC, VA, WV, IN, OH, PA, MD, DE, NJ, NY, CT, RI, MA, VT, NH, ME, and AK. Echinochiloideae: Antiphytum 2 spp. native to NM and TX.

Mexico Genera Include:

Boraginoideae: Lithospermum ~43 spp. native to all of Mexico, including ~32 endemics. Cynoglossoideae: Amsinckia 3 spp. native to N Mexico; Borago 1 sp. intro to SW+C Mexico; Cryptantha 5-6 spp. native to N Mexico, including 3+ endemics; Cynoglossum 1 sp. intro to NE+SW Mexico; Eremocarya 2 S NAM endemic spp. native to NW Mexico; Hackelia 5 spp. native to all of Mexico (1 endemic); Greeneocharis 1 sp. native to NW Mexico; Harpagonella 2 S NAM endemic spp. native to BC, BCS, Guadalupe Is., and Son; Johnstonella 17 spp. native to most of Mexico except Chp, Tab, Cam, Yuc, and QR, most are endemic to Mexico; Lappula 1-2 spp. native to N Mexico; Mertensia 1 sp. native to NE Mexico; Mimophytum 11 S NAM endemic spp. native to Coa, NL, Tam, Dgo, SLP, Pue, Qro, Hgo, Gto, Mex, Tlx, Ver, NE, C Mexico, Ver, including 10 endemics; Oncaglossum monospecific endemic in NE, C, and SW Mexico; Oreocarya 3-4? spp NAM endemics native throughout the N half of Mexico; Pectocarya 6 spp. native to NW Mexico, including 1-2 endemics of BC; Plagiobothrys 7+ spp. native to NW+C Mexico. Echinochiloideae: Amphibologyne monospecific endemic of NE and SW Mexico; Antiphytum ~10+ spp. native to much of Mexico exc. Chp, Cam, Tab, Yuc, QR, including several endemics.

Neotropical Genera Include:

Boraginoideae: Anchusa 1 sp. intro to Argentina; Borago 1 sp. intro to Guatemala, Honduras, Greater Antilles, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, C Chile, Uruguay, and Argentina; Buglossoides 1 sp. intro to Bolivia, Argentina, and Uruguay; Echium 1 sp. intro to C Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, and S Brazil; Lithospermum ~7 spp. native to Guatemala (1) and the rest are endemic to the Andes of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia; Moritzia 3 neoendemic spp. native to Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, and SE+S Brazil; Symphytum 1 sp. intro to Dominican Republic, Haiti, C Brazil, and NE Argentina; Thaumatocaryon  2 E SAM endemic spp. native to S+SE Brazil, Paraguay, and NE Argentina. Cynoglossoideae: Amsinckia 2-3 spp. originally endemic to W SAM in Ecuador (1 still endemic), Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina; Cryptantha ~50 spp. native and endemic to W SAM in Peru, Bolivia, N+C Chile, and Argentina; Cynoglossum 1 sp. intro Jamaica, Haiti, Dominican Republic; Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, SE Brazil, Argentina, C+S Chile, and Juan Fernandez Is.; Greeneocharis 1 sp. native NW+S Argentina; Hackelia 7 spp. native to Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru (1 endemic), Bolivia, and N Argentina; Iberodes 1 sp. intro to C Chile; Johnstonella ~6 spp. native to Peru, N Chile, and NW Argentina; Lappula 1-3 spp. intro to Venezuela and native N+S Argentina; Myosotis 1-2 spp. intro to Guatemala, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, N+C Chile, N Argentina, SE Brazil, Uruguay, and Trinidad-Tobago; Nesocaryum monospecific endemic of the Desventurados Islands off the coast of NC Chile; Pectocarya 6 spp. native to Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, N+C Chile, and Argentina; Plagiobothrys 8+ spp. native to Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, C+S Chile, and NW+S Argentina; Selkirkia 4 SAM endemics, inc. 1 endemic to Juan Fernandez Is., 2 endemic to C+S Chile, and 1 endemic to Colombia and Ecuador; Trichodesma 1 sp. intro to Windward Is. Echinochiloideae: Antiphytum 2-3 spp. endemic to S Brazil and Uruguay.

Patagonia Genera Include:

Boraginoideae: Anchusa 1 sp. intro to S Argentina; Borago 1 sp. intro to C Chile and S Argentina; Buglossoides 1 sp. intro to S Argentina; Echium 1 sp. intro to Patagonia region; Lithospermum 1 sp. intro S Argentina. Cynoglossoideae: Amsinckia 1-2 spp. native throughout Patagonia; Asperugo monospecific intro to Patagonia region; Cynoglossum 1 sp. intro throughout Patagonia; Greeneocharis  1 sp. native S Argentina; Lappula 1 sp. native to Patagonia region; Myosotis 1-2 spp. native to S Chile and S Argentina and intro to Falkland Is.; Pectocarya 1 sp. native to S Argentina and SC Chile; Plagiobothrys 1 sp. native to C+S Chile and S Argentina; Selkirkia 2 SAM endemics native to SC and S Chile.

Additional Information and References

  • Visit Lyrae’s Dictionary of Botanical Terms to learn the terminology of botanists. Note that if you hover over most of the words in the articles, you can also get definitions from them there.
  • Willis, Lyrae (Unpublished). Plant Families of North America. This is where all of the family descriptions come from. Below should be most of my references for this, along with my own personal observations throughout North America.
  • Canadensys: Acadia University, Université de Montréal Biodiversity Centre, University of Toronto Mississauga, University of British Columbia. http://data.canadensys.net/explorer (accessed 2020 – current)
  • Watson, L., and Dallwitz, M.J. (1992+). The Families of Flowering Plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval. Version: 2nd May 2020. delta-intkey.com. Accessed spring through fall of 2020.
  • FNA (1993+). Flora of North America. https://floranorthamerica.org/Main_Page. Accessed 2022-current.
  • GBIF.org (2020+), GBIF Home Page. Available from: https://www.gbif.org
  • iNaturalist.org (2020+). https://www.inaturalist.org/. Accessed 2020-current.
  • Luebert, F., Cecchi, L., Frohlich, M. W., Gottschling, M., Guilliams, C. M., Hasenstab-Lehman, K. E., Hilger, H. H., Miller, J. S., Mittelbach, M., Nazaire, M., Nepi, M., Nocentini, D., Ober, D., Olmstead, R. G., Selvi, F., Simpson, M. G., Sutorý, K., Valdés, B., Walden, G. K., & Weigend, M. (2016). Familial Classification of the Boraginales. axon, 65(3), 502–522. https://plants.sdsu.edu/amsinckiinae/pdfs/Luebert_etal2016-Boraginales.pdf.
  • Naturalista: CONABIO http://www.naturalista.mx (Accessed 2020–current).
  • Neotropikey: Milliken, W., Klitgård, B., & Baracat, A. eds. (2009+). Neotropikey: Interactive key and information resources for flowering plants of the Neotropics. www.kew.org/neotropikey.com (accessed 2020 – current).
  • Patagonia Wildflowers: Wildflower Identification Site. https://patagoniawildflowers.org/ Accessed throughout the fall of 2020.
  • POWO (2019+). Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet: http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/
  • Stevens, P. F. (2001+). Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 14, July 2017 [more or less continuously updated since]. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/. This is the authoritative source on currently accepted families, subfamilies, tribes, and genera.
  • USDA, NRCS. 2020. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 2 June 2020). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC, USA; Accessed 2020-present.
  • WFO (2022): World Flora Online. Published on the Internet: http://www.worldfloraonline.org. Accessed Spring 2022 – current

My Current Plant Family Education Fundraiser

I am currently seeking funding to expand my website and SEO capabilities as I keep adding new families, and I am also looking to invest in a new macro lens, as I will soon be adding floral dissections to the families as they become available to me. You can donate to help support native plant education using the GoFundMe link, also at the bottom of the page.

Copyright Information

The information and the photos on this site are free to use for educational purposes, with proper attribution. For other uses, please contact me first.

You can cite this site as follows: Willis, Lyrae (2020+). Lyrae’s Nature Blog – Plant Families of North America. https://lyraenatureblog.com/. Accessed [Enter Date].

23 Apr, 2026

19 Apr, 2026

How to Identify the Campanulaceae or Bellflower Family

Campanula alaskana the Alaskan Bellflower, showing the bell-shaped flower this family is named for
Campanula alaskana the Alaskan Bellflower, showing the bell-shaped flower this family is named for
Page Last Updated May 14, 2026.

Introduction to the Campanulaceae Family

The Campanulaceae, or Bellflower family, is part of the Asterales order (related to sunflowers) of the core dicots. It is a widespread family found on every continent except Antarctica, and it is a popular garden ornamental for its lovely flowers. The first time I found one was on a grassy bluff next to the ocean, and I automatically knew what family it was in because of the pretty blue bell-shaped flowers with the long style that the family is best known for, although other colors and flower shapes do exist in the family.

 Common Botanical Description

If you’re new to plant morphology, this guide is a perfect beginner’s description, with no need to know any scientific jargon. Below this section is additional information on uses and morphology photos to help you identify the family, followed by pictures of individual species found in North America. But for researchers or those wanting to learn a more in-depth version, refer to the Scientific Botanical Description below the images for highly detailed scientific descriptions and genus-level distribution data.

Leaves and Stems: Most members are perennial herbs, but some annuals, biennials, shrubs, or small trees exist in the family; mostly they live on land, but some are aquatic. One key identifying feature is the milky juice that is released when they are damaged.

Leaves are usually arranged alternately on the stem but are sometimes in opposite pairs or whorls. They are usually simple (not compound), linear, lance-shaped, oblong, egg-shaped, or rounded with variously toothed margins but are occasionally divided into opposite pairs of leaflets.

Flowers: Flowers are often medium to large and showing, appearing singly or in various spikes or umbrella-shaped clusters. Flowers are typically bell-shaped or star-shaped, giving them the common name of bellflowers. Most are in shades of blue, but they can also be found in white, yellow, red, pink, or purple. Flowers are often symmetrical but can be irregular or “two-lipped,” like in Lobelia.

Reproductive Features: Reproductive features are specialized to ensure successful pollination by insects. There are usually 5 stamens (male parts) that may be separate or joined in a long column surrounding the female parts (ovary, style). Most species have an inferior ovary located below where the petals attach. A single long style comes up through the center of the flower.

Fruits: The fruit is almost always a dry capsule that splits open through valves, irregular slits, or other ways to release the seeds. Very rarely is the fruit a fleshy berry (mostly in the Lobelioideae subfamily). Some seeds are equipped with wings to aid in dispersal.

Uses of the Campanulaceae Family

With plenty of showy flowers, this family is popular for garden ornamentals, especially from Lobelia, Wahlenbergia, Codonopsis, Jasione, and more than 120 species of Campanula. They are widely grown in gardens and landscapes around the world.

Morphology of Campanulaceae in North America

Learn how to identify the Campanulaceae family with morphology photos
Learn how to identify the Campanulaceae family with morphology photos

Some Campanulaceae Species of North America

Campanuloideae Subfamily

Campanula alaskana the Alaskan Bellflower, showing the bell-shaped flower the Campanulaceae family is named for

Campanula alaskana—Alaska Bellflower

Herbaceous perennial from rhizomes with weak stems with larger basal leaves and small, linear stem leaves. Flowers are large and showy, bell-shaped, nodding, and up to 3 cm long in blue-violet to lavender colors. It is often confused with Campanula rotundifolia but has broader leaves, and it is only found along the North Pacific from Washington State north to Alaska.

Campanula rotundifolia flowers showing bell-shaped flowers with a 3-lobed stigma, both common features of the Campanulaceae.

Campanula petiolata—Western Harebell

This was a recent taxon split from the much more widespread Campanula rotundifolia, with which it shares many characteristics but tends to be more upright with stronger stems. The long style with a 3-lobed tip visible in the photo is common among Campanula rotundifolia and close relatives like these. Some taxonomists do not recognize this or Campanula alaskana as separate species from Campanula rotundifolia.

Campanulastrum americanum American Bellflower inflorescence with flowers showing a single long style that is characteristic of the Campanulaceae family.

Campanulastrum americanum—American Bellflower

A tall, erect annual or biennial common in moist woods. Unlike most bellflowers, it has flat star-shaped flowers in elongated spikes, and it has alternate lance-shaped leaves compared to the often linear ones seen in Campanula species.

Triodanis biflora plant with flowers in Georgia

Triodanis biflora—Venus’s Looking Glass

This species is an annual herb of disturbed areas with alternate leaves that do not wrap around the stem. It has pinkish to purple bellflowers with widely spreading lobes that make them look like a star. Native to the southern and eastern United States, Mexico, and South America.

Triodanis perfoliata perfoliate leaves and flowers closeup

Triodanis perfoliata—Clasping Venus’s Looking Glass

This species is very similar to Triodanis biflora, with a similar native range, though perhaps a bit more widespread. It can usually be differentiated by the leaves shown here that clasp and nearly wrap all the way around the stem. However, they can hybridize, making identification difficult.

Lobelioideae Subfamily

Lobelia appendiculata two-lipped flowers closeup; though it has 5 lobes, they are clearly divided into an upper lip and a lower lip, common among the Campanulaceae

Lobelia appendiculata—Pale Lobelia

This species is an annual unbranched herb that grows up to 60 cm tall with oblong to egg-shaped leaves that clasp partway around the stem. It has pale blue to white two-lipped flowers (2 upper lobes and 3 larger lower ones) in a loose terminal spike. It is native to the south-central USA.

Lobelia cardinalis, a plant with bright red showy flowers

Lobelia cardinalis—Cardinal Flower

This herbaceous perennial grows up to 1.2 m tall and is found mostly in or near bogs, riverbanks, swamps, or wet forests. It has large, lance-shaped to oval leaves with toothed margins. Flowers are large and bright red with 5 deeply cut lobes. Plants with pink or white flowers occasionally occur. It is native to southeastern Canada through the eastern and southern USA, south to northern Colombia.

Lobelia spicata inflorescence with flowers

Lobelia spicata—Pale Spike Lobelia

This short-lived perennial is often found flowering below taller grasses in sunny or semi-shaded prairies, woodlands, and disturbed areas. They have simple, variously elongated-shaped leaves with shallow teeth and are most known for their sometimes densely flowered spikes of white or pale blue flowers, like those in the photo. Native to southern Canada and the eastern USA.

Scientific Botanical Description of the Campanulaceae Family

Habit & Leaf Form of the Campanulaceae Family

Mostly perennial herbs with some annual or biennial and a few shrubs or small pachycaul trees with heights from 8 cm to over 2 m tall (excluding trees). They are laticiferous, which is an important identifying characteristic. Variously hydrophytic to xerophytic, and when hydrophytic, they are rooted with emergent and submerged leaves. Other plants may or may not have a basal aggregation of leaves. Leaves usually alternate or sometimes are opposite or whorled.

Leaves are petiolate or subsessile, sheathing or non-sheathing, and when sheathing, they have free margins. Leaves are not gland-dotted; they lack a pulvinus and stipules and are usually simple or sometimes compound–pinnate. Lamina, when simple, may be dissected or entire. When entire, it is linear, lanceolate, oblanceolate, oblong, ovate, obovate, or orbicular. When dissected, it is pinnatifid or palmatifid. Lamina margins are crenate, serrate, or dentate.

Flowers of the Campanulaceae Family

Plants are always hermaphrodites. Pollination is entomophilous and conspicuously specialized via modifications of the style with sterile tissue covering the stigmas. Flowers are solitary or aggregated in cymes, racemes, spikes, and umbels, sometimes pseudanthial. Inflorescences are scapiflorous or not, terminal or axillary, and with or without involucral bracts. Flowers are medium to large; regular to very irregular; 5-merous; tetracyclic. Perianth has a distinct calyx and corolla of 10 or 16–20 (Michauxia) parts in 2 whorls.

Calyx 5 or 8–10 (Michauxia); 1 whorled; free or connate (depending on interpretation, with the tube nearly always being united with the ovary); basally appendaged (e.g., Campanula with adjoining pairs of sepals contributing to each appendage); spurred or not; imbricate or valvate. An epicalyx is sometimes present. Corolla 5 or 8–10 (Michauxia); 1 whorled; connate (usually) or free (Jasione); valvate; often campanulate with long tubular bells or open starry ones; bilabiate or regular; mostly blue, but also white, yellow, red, pink, or purple; spurred (e.g., Heterotoma) or not spurred.

Androecium of the Campanulaceae Family

There are 5 or 8–10 (Michauxia) androecial members made of exclusively fertile stamens that are free of the perianth or adnate low down on the corolla and free of one another or coherent, 1-whorled, and sometimes forming a column around the style. Stamens are isomerous with the perianth, opposite the sepals, and alternating with the corolla members; they are filantherous or laminar and filantherous (e.g., being laminate below the filaments in Wahlenbergia). Filaments are sometimes basally appendiculate (sometimes in Campanula). Anthers are cohering and sometimes terminating an androecial column (e.g., Centropogon, Burmeistera) or separate, dehiscing via longitudinal slits, introrse, and tetrasporangiate.

Gynoecium of the Campanulaceae Family

The gynoecium is 2, 3, 5 (8 in Ostrowskia) or 8–10 carpelled (Michauxia). The pistil is 2 or 3 celled or occasionally 5 (6–10) celled. The gynoecium is synstylovarious and with a usually inferior ovary or rarely superior. The ovary is 2, 3, or 5 (6–10) locular. Styles 1. Stigmas equal in number to carpels; wet or dry type; papillate or non-papillate; Group II or IV type. Placentation axile with 10–50 ovules per locule; horizontal; non-arillate; anatropous; unitegmic; tenuinucellate.  

Fruit of the Campanulaceae Family

The fruit of the Campanulaceae is almost always a non-fleshy, dehiscent septicidal, loculicidal, valvular, or irregularly splitting capsule or, rarely, a fleshy indehiscent berry. Seeds are small, endospermic, oily, and rarely starchy and are sometimes winged. 

Taxonomy of Campanulaceae

There are 2,380 species in 84 genera of the Asterales order of the core Eudicots (dicots).

The family is divided into five subfamilies, 2 of which are very widespread:

  1. Campanuloideae is a large subfamily characterized by polysymmetric flowers, stamens that sprawl at the bottom of the corolla tube after the anthers have dehisced, an inferior ovary, and long-hairy styles. These are widespread and found worldwide, with especially high diversity in the north temperate Old World.
  2. Lobelioideae is a subfamily of herbs or small trees with terminal, occasionally axillary, inflorescences and large to small resupinate flowers. Stamen filaments are connate at least apically, and anthers are connate. They are mostly tropical, especially common in the New World with a major center of diversity in the Andes and over 100 endemic species found on the Hawaiian Islands. They are not present in the Arctic and are absent from the Near East and Central Asia.
  3. Nemacladoideae is a small subfamily of tiny annuals (rarely perennial) with sub-opposite leaves, racemes without bracteoles, and small flowers that are not resupinate. Anthers are connivent; filaments are connate apically and may be free at the base. These are restricted to the southwestern USA (especially California) and northwestern Mexico.
  4. Cyphioideae is a group of perennial herbs (twining vines) and shrubs with tuberous roots. The fused corolla is split almost to the base into two groups, usually with three upper lobes and two lower lobes. Stamen filaments may be free or connate. Mostly in Southern Africa but also in East Africa and the Cape Verde Islands.
  5. Cyphocarpoideae is a small subfamily endemic to Chile and is made of annual or perennial spiny herbs with deeply lobed leaf margins and foliaceous bracts. The upper corolla lobe is sub-hooded, and the lower lobes show three ridges.

Genera of the Campanulaceae:

Campanuloideae: Adenophora (68), Asyneuma (37), Azorina (1? or syn. Campanula), Berenice (1), Campanula (452), Canarina (3), Codonopsis (49), Craterocapsa (5), Cryptocodon (1), Cyananthus (19), Cyclocodon (3), Cylindrocarpa (1), Echinocodon (1), Edraianthus (21), Favratia (1), Feeria (1), Githopsis (4), Gunillaea (2), Hanabusaya (1), Heterochaenia (4), Heterocodon (1), Himalacodon (1), Homocodon (2), Jasione (14), Kericodon (1), Legousia (6), Merciera (6), Michauxia (8), Microcodon (4), Muehlbergella (1), Musschia (3), Namacodon (1), Nesocodon (1), Ostrowskia (1), Pankycodon (1), Peracarpa (1), Petromarula (1), Physoplexis (1), Phyteuma (22), Platycodon (1), Prismatocarpus (27), Pseudocodon (8), Rhigiophyllum (1), Roella (22), Sachokiella (1? or syn. Campanula), Sergia (2), Siphocodon (2), Theilera (2), Theodorovia (1? or syn. Campanula), Trachelium (2), Treichelia (2), Triodanis (6), Wahlenbergia (263), Zeugandra (2).

Lobelioideae: Apetahia (? or syn. Sclerotheca), Brighamia (2), Burmeistera (129), Centropogon (212), Clermontia (23), Cyanea (81), Delissea (15), Dialypetalum (5), Diastatea (9), Dielsantha (1), Downingia (13), Grammatotheca (1), Heterotoma (1), Hippobroma (1), Howellia (1), Isotoma (10), Legenere (1), Lobelia (444), Lysipomia (32), Monopsis (15), Palmerella (1), Porterella (1), Ruthiella (4), Sclerotheca (10), Siphocampylus (237), Solenopsis (13), Trematolobelia (8), Unigenes (1), Wimmeranthus (1), Wimmerella (10).

Nemacladoideae: Nemacladus (26), Parishella (? syn. Nemacladus), Pseudonemacladus (1).

Cyphioideae: Cyphia (76).

Cyphocarpoideae: Cyphocarpus (4).

Key Differences From Similar Families

Campanulaceae is easy to distinguish by the combined presence of latex, simple leaves, and an inferior ovary. Sometimes plants from Acanthaceae, Lamiaceae, and Rubiaceae with long reddish or orange corolla tubes are placed in Campanulaceae, but they differ in leaves that are usually opposite and having free stamens and anthers.

Distribution of the Campanulaceae

The Campanulaceae are found from frigid zones to tropical climates with a cosmopolitan distribution excluding tropical Africa and Antarctica. Found from deserts to rainforests and the Arctic, but the majority of species are by far northern temperate species.

In the Americas, the Campanulaceae are found through Canada, including the Arctic (and Greenland), and south through the USA, Mexico, Central America, and South America.

Distribution of Campanulaceae in the Americas

NOTE: This data was gathered 4-5 years ago and may not reflect current genus names and status.

Canadian Campanulaceae Genera Include:

Campanuloideae: Campanula 19 spp., including 18 native in all of Canada, including the Arctic (and Greenland), and 1 sp. intro to BC; Githopsis 1 W NAM endemic sp. native to S Vancouver Island, BC; Heterocodon monospecific W NAM endemic native to BC; Jasione 1 sp. intro to BC?; Triodanis 1 sp. native to BC, ON, and QC. Lobelioideae: Downingia 2 spp. native to BC, AB, and SK; Isotoma 1 sp. intro to BC; Lobelia 2 spp. native to BC, ON, and QC, and ephemeral NB.

USA Campanulaceae Genera Include:

Campanuloideae: Asyneuma 1 sp. native to OR and CA; Campanula 34 spp., including 33 native to most of the USA and AK but excluding OK, AR, LA, MS, and 1 sp. intro to NV and NH; Clermontia 22-23 narrow endemic spp. of HI; Cyanea 80-81 spp. narrow endemic genera of HI; Githopsis 4 spp. W NAM endemic genera native MT, WA, OR, and CA (2 endemics); Heterocodon monospecific W NAM endemic native to WA, OR, CA, NV, ID, MT, WY, and CO; Jasione 1 sp. intro to WA, OR, NC, MD, PA, DE, NY, CT, NJ, RI, and MA; Legousia 1 sp. intro to CA and PA; Platycodon 1 sp. intro to NY, PA, NC, and HI; Triodanis 6 spp. native to all of the USA (5 endemics), and intro HI; Wahlenbergia 2 spp. intro to TX, LA, AR, MS, AL, GA, SC, NC, and FL. Lobelioideae: Brighamia 2 spp. narrow endemic genera of HI; Delissea 15 spp. narrow endemic genera of HI; Downingia 13 spp. native to WA, ID, MT, OR, WY, CA, NV, and UT, includes 9 USA endemics, mostly in CA; Hippobroma monospecific intro to FL and HI; Howellia monospecific W USA endemic of WA, ID, MT, OR, and CA; Legenere monospecific Americas disjunct endemic of CA + Patagonia; Lobelia 43 spp. native and intro to the entire USA and HI and native in AK; Palmerella monospecific narrow endemic of S CA + N BC Mexico; Porterella monospecific endemic of OR, ID, WY, CA, UT, and AZ; Trematolobelia 8 spp. narrow endemic genera of HI. Nemacladoideae: Nemacladus 18-26 W NAM endemic spp. native to OR, ID, CA, NV, UT, AZ, and NM, including many endemic to W USA.

Mexico Campanulaceae Genera Include:

Campanuloideae: Campanula 1-2 spp. native to NE Mexico and intro to SW+SE Mexico and Ver; Githopsis 1 W NAM endemic sp. native BC and Guadalupe Is.; Heterocodon monospecific W NAM endemic native to NW Mexico; Triodanis 1 sp. native throughout Mexico except the SE. Lobelioideae: Centropogon 4+ spp. mostly neoendemic, native to most of Mexico except the NW, and includes 1 endemic species; Diastatea 8 spp. including 7 endemics native to most of Mexico (exc. NW); Downingia 1 sp. native to NW Mexico; Heterotoma monospecific neoendemic native to NE+C+SW+NE Mexico; Hippobroma monospecific intro to all of Mexico; Lobelia ~86 spp., including ~20 endemic to all of Mexico; Palmerella monospecific narrow endemic of S CA + N BC Mexico; Wimmeranthus monospecific endemic of SW Mexico. Nemacladoideae: Nemacladus 10 W NAM endemic spp. native to NW Mexico, mostly in BC, including 1 endemic to BC; Pseudonemacladus monospecific endemic to NE Mexico.

Neotropical Campanulaceae Genera Include:

Campanuloideae: Triodanis 1 sp. native to Guatemala, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, S+SE Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina, and intro to Jamaica and Dominican Republic; Wahlenbergia 6 spp. neoendemics of E+S Brazil (inc. 1 Brazil endemic), Colombia, French Guiana, Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Paraguay, Argentina, C Chile, and Uruguay. Cyphocarpoideae: Cyphocarpus 3 spp. narrow endemic genera of N+C Chile. Lobelioideae: Burmeistera 129 spp. neoendemic genera of Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Peru; Centropogon ~211 spp. mostly neoendemic native to CAM (exc. Belize) and tropical SAM S to Peru, Bolivia, and C+SE Brazil, and the Lesser Antilles (2 endemics); Diastatea 2 spp. native to CAM (exc. Belize), Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and NW Argentina; Heterotoma monospecific Mexico and neoendemic native to Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica; Hippobroma longiflora monospecific originally endemic Jamaica but widely introduced elsewhere; Lobelia ~50?? spp. native to CAM, the Antilles, all of SAM except Guyana and including Galapagos; Lysipomia 32 spp. Andes endemic genera of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia; Siphocampylus 237 spp. neoendemic genera of Costa Rica, Panama, the Greater Antilles, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil (exc. N), Paraguay, N Argentina, and Uruguay.

Patagonia Campanulaceae Genera Include:

Campanuloideae: Campanula 1 sp. intro to S Argentina and Falkland Is.; Triodanis 1 sp. native to S Argentina; Wahlenbergia 1 sp. native to S Chile. Lobelioideae: Downingia 1 sp. native throughout Patagonia (also native in California); Legenere monospecific Americas disjunct endemic of California + Patagonia; Lobelia 5+ spp. native throughout Patagonia and Falkland Is. and intro to South Georgia Is.

Additional Information and References

  • Visit Lyrae’s Dictionary of Botanical Terms to learn the terminology of botanists. Note that if you hover over most of the words in the articles, you can also get definitions from them there.
  • Willis, Lyrae (Unpublished). Plant Families of North America. This is where all of the family descriptions come from. Below should be most of my references for this, along with my own personal observations throughout North America.
  • Canadensys: Acadia University, Université de Montréal Biodiversity Centre, University of Toronto Mississauga, University of British Columbia. http://data.canadensys.net/explorer (accessed 2020 – current)
  • Watson, L., and Dallwitz, M.J. (1992+). The Families of Flowering Plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval. Version: 2nd May 2020. delta-intkey.com. Accessed spring through fall of 2020.
  • FNA (1993+). Flora of North America. https://floranorthamerica.org/Main_Page. Accessed 2022-current.
  • GBIF.org (2020+), GBIF Home Page. Available from: https://www.gbif.org
  • iNaturalist.org (2020+). https://www.inaturalist.org/. Accessed 2020-current.
  • Naturalista: CONABIO http://www.naturalista.mx (Accessed 2020–current).
  • Neotropikey: Milliken, W., Klitgård, B., & Baracat, A. eds. (2009+). Neotropikey: Interactive key and information resources for flowering plants of the Neotropics. www.kew.org/neotropikey.com (accessed 2020 – current).
  • Patagonia Wildflowers: Wildflower Identification Site. https://patagoniawildflowers.org/ Accessed throughout the fall of 2020.
  • POWO (2019+). Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet: http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/
  • Stevens, P. F. (2001+). Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 14, July 2017 [more or less continuously updated since]. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/
  • USDA, NRCS. 2020. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 2 June 2020). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC, USA; Accessed 2020-present.
  • WFO (2022): World Flora Online. Published on the Internet: http://www.worldfloraonline.org. Accessed Spring 2022 – current

My Current Plant Family Education Fundraiser

I am currently seeking funding to expand my website and SEO capabilities as I keep adding new families, and I am also looking to invest in a new macro lens, as I will soon be adding floral dissections to the families as they become available to me. You can donate to help support native plant education using the GoFundMe link, also at the bottom of the page.

Copyright Information

The information and the photos on this site are free to use for educational purposes, with proper attribution. For other uses, please contact me first.

You can cite this site as follows: Willis, Lyrae (2020+). Lyrae’s Nature Blog – Plant Families of North America. https://lyraenatureblog.com/. Accessed [Enter Date].

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How to Identify the Apiaceae / Carrot Family

Daucus carota inflorescence with flowers.
Daucus carota inflorescence with flowers. Flat-topped umbels of white flowers are quite common among the Apiaceae.
Page Last Updated May 13, 2026.

Introduction to the Apiaceae Family

The Apiaceae family is widespread globally but is particularly common in northern temperate zones. It is well known for its many edible foods and herbs, including carrots, celery, parsley, dill, and many, many more. Most plants have a characteristic smell and possess small flowers in umbels, making the family fairly easy to spot in the field.

The Apiaceae are part of the Apiales order of core dicot flowering plants. The very closely related Araliaceae family has many overlapping characteristics. In general, though, Apiaceae are usually herbs that produce dry fruits that split into 2 segments when mature (schizocarps), while the Araliaceae are usually shrubs or trees and usually produce berry-like drupes (soft fruits with a pit inside, like a cherry).  

Common Botanical Description

If you’re new to plant morphology, this guide is a great beginner’s description for learning to identify the Apiaceae family, with no need to know any scientific jargon. For researchers or those wanting to learn a more in-depth version, check out the Scientific Botanical Description below.

Leaves and Stems of the Apiaceae: Most plants are aromatic (malodorous to pleasant) annual, biennial, or perennial herbs. Their stems are often hollow between the nodes and are typically grooved or ribbed like celery and are often covered with hairs. The leaves are arranged alternately on the stem and often have sheaths or wrap around the stem. The leaves are often compound, made of many smaller leaflets.

Flowers of the Apiaceae: Flowers are usually rather small but are grouped into often large, flat-topped clusters called umbels for how they resemble the ribs of an umbrella. Each flower typically has five free white or yellow petals, or occasionally pink or purple. Flowers in the center of the cluster are often symmetrical, while those on the outer edge often have larger outer petals and smaller inner petals.

Reproductive Features of the Apiaceae: Flowers are bisexual, with both female (ovary, style, and stigma) and male (stamens) parts in the same flower. There are 5 free (unjoined) stamens. There is a single inferior ovary (located below where the petals attach), with two styles (pollen-collecting tubes) on top that often have thickened bases.

Fruits of the Apiaceae: Fruits are not fleshy but dry “schizocarps” that split into two parts, each containing a single seed when mature.

Uses and Cautions of Apiaceae 

Many members of the Apiaceae family are used for culinary purposes, including Daucus (carrot), Pastinaca (parsnip), Apium (celery), Petroselinum (parsley), Pimpinella (anise), Carum (caraway), Anethum (dill), Anthriscus (chervil), Foeniculum (fennel), and Levisticum (lovage), to name some of the more common ones. Ornamental ones include Eryngium, Angelica, Heracleum, Trachymene, and others; however, many ornamentals have been modified with enlarged bracts or sepals and are not representative of the family.

Many Apiaceae are also used medicinally in folk, herbal, and Chinese medicines to treat a wide variety of ailments.

Still other Apiaceae members have notoriously poisonous resins or alkaloids such as Cicuta, Conium (hemlocks), Aethusa (fool’s parsley), and others are phototoxic (Heracleum mantegazzianum). 

Morphology of Apiaceae in North America

Learn how to identify the Apiaceae family with common and scientific botanical descriptions and morphology photos.

Some of the Apiaceae Species Found in North America

Apioideae Subfamily

Anthriscus sylvestris inflorescence with flowers, a very typical inflorescence of the Apiaceae family

Anthriscus sylvestris—Cow Parsley

Herbaceous perennial, 60 – 170 cm tall with hollow, grooved stems that are green with purple splotches and tiny hairs. Leaves are compound and made of many leaflets (2-3 times pinnate) and appear fern-like. Flowers are white, small, in compound umbels like shown in the photo, with individual umbelets having hairy oval little bracts with red tips. It is native to Eurasia and Africa but widely introduced in the Americas.

Bifora americana inflorescence

Bifora Americana—Prairie Bishop

Herbaceous annual to 80 cm tall with deeply divided leaves with threadlike leaflets and tiny white flowers in compact compound umbels with individual petals having notched tips that help in their identification. Fruits are small, roundish dry fruits that split apart at maturity (schizocarp). This species is endemic to the southern USA, in Texas, Oklahoma, and Arkansas. This one was in Texas.

Chaerophyllum procumbens leaf made of numerous leaflets and flowers; compound leaves are common of the Apiaceae family

Chaerophyllum procumbens – Spreading Chervil

Herbaceous annual, 15 – 50 cm tall, with slender, branching, shiny, and finely hairy stems. Mostly hairless leaves are divided into many leaflets and look very fern-like (bipinnately compound). Flowers are in small terminal compound umbels, each with 1 to 7 small white flowers that bloom before the umbel finishes expanding, as shown in the photo. This Apiaceae species is endemic to eastern North America.

Chaerophyllum tainturieri inflorescence with flowers and fruits

Chaerophyllum tainturieri – Hairyfruit Chervil

Herbaceous annual to 80 cm tall with erect stems, opposite compound leaves (bipinnately like many Apiaceae) that are stiff-hairy. Flowers are in few-flowered umbels (not compound) in leaf axils, and it produces oblong fruits (schizocarps) also visible in the photo. It is native to the southeastern USA, with disjunct populations in Arizona and New Mexico.

Cicuta douglasii - deadly poisonous Apiaceae plant with flowers

Cicuta douglasii – Western Water Hemlock

Herbaceous semi-aquatic perennial from thick tuberous roots. Inner tubers and stem bases have horizontal chambers used to help identify them. Leaves are alternately arranged and divided (pinnate) into 3 – 10 cm leaflets with jagged margins. The flowers are arranged in compound umbels with numerous small white flowers. This Apiaceae is the most poisonous native North American plant. It is endemic to the Pacific Northwest, mostly in BC, Canada, where this one was.

Cicuta maculata - deadly poisonous plant with flowers

Cicuta maculata – Spotted Cowbane

Herbaceous perennial from rhizomes with a hollow, erect stem up to 1.8 m tall. It has compound leaves with several lance-shaped, pointy-tipped, toothed leaflets 2 – 10 cm long. Flowers are in compound umbels with many white or whitish flowers. The whole plant is poisonous and is native from northern Canada to southern Mexico.

Conium maculatum- deadly poisonous plant with flowers, inflorescence is also a common Apiaceae feature.

Conium maculatum—Poison Hemlock

Herbaceous biennial 1.5 – 2.5 m tall with hairless, smooth, green, hollow stems usually streaked with red or purple. Leaves are finely divided and lacy-looking (2 – 4 times pinnately compound) and about 50 cm long. Flowers are small and white in loose compound umbels. Native to Eurasia and Africa, widely introduced and invasive in North America.

Cymopterus longiradiatus plant with flowers. Narrow endemic of New Mexico and Texas.

Cymopterus longiradius – Trans-Pecos False Mountainparsley

Herbaceous perennial from a taproot with a basal rosette of 3 times pinnately compound leaves. Flowers are in compound umbels in yellow. The fruit is a schizocarp. This Apiaceae member is narrow native endemic of the Sacramento and Guadalupe Mountains of New Mexico and Texas, USA.

Daucus carota inflorescence with flowers, very tipical of the Apiaceae.

Daucus carota—Wild Carrot

Herbaceous biennial, 30–120 cm tall with a roughly hairy, stiff, solid stem. Finely divided leaves (tripinnate) are 5 – 15 cm long and alternately arranged. Flowers are small and whitish in large, dense, flat-topped terminal umbels, often with a central pink or purple flower visible here. Dry fruits (schizocarps) develop as the umbels contract and become congested. It is native throughout the temperate Old World and has been widely introduced in the Americas.

Daucus pusillus native American wild carrot inflorescence with fruits

Daucus pusillus—American Wild Carrot

Slender, herbaceous annual to 60 cm tall with hairy stems and finely dissected fern-like leaves with umbels of white flowers (lacking a central purple flower as in D. carota), with feathery bracts that extend beyond the flowers. The photo shows the contracted umbel in fruit. Native throughout the temperate Old World and widely introduced in the Americas.

Heracleum mantegazzianum invasive herbaceous plant with flowers

Heracleum mantegazzianum – Giant Cow Parsnip

Herbaceous perennial 2 – 5 m tall with a hollow, rigid, erect green stem with prominent red-purple splotches and coarse white hairs. Leaves are about 1 m wide, deeply lobed, with shredded (incised) margins. White or green-white flowers in compound umbels are flat-topped and massive, up to 1 m across. This Eurasian native is widely introduced and invasive. It causes phototoxicity and contact dermatitis.

Heracleum maximum herbaceous plant with flowers

Heracleum maximum—Cow Parsnip

Herbaceous perennial plant to 3 m tall with hollow, densely hairy stems that have few to no purple splotches. Leaves are 3-lobed and may be deeply so but not shredded (incised) on the margins and are up to 40 cm across. White flowers in compound umbels up to 30 cm across may be flat-topped or rounded, with outer flowers often much larger than inner flowers. Native to Canada & most of the USA, plus East Asia.

Lomatium grayi plant with flowers

Lomatium grayi—Gray’s Lomatium

Herbaceous perennial with divided, fernlike (pinnately compound) dark-green leaves. Compound umbels each with hundreds of yellow flowers appear on leafless stalks. Hairless fruits are elliptic with lateral wings. The plant smells of parsley. It is endemic to the western United States, and this one was found on Antelope Island, Utah.

Lomatium foeniculaceum plant with flowers

Lomatium foeniculaceum – Desert Biscuitroot

An herbaceous perennial herb up to 30 cm tall from a taproot. It’s stemless with hairy leaf stalks and peduncles that grow from the ground. Leaves are compound and fern-like (2–4x pinnate) and up to 30 cm long. Flowers are small, yellow, or purplish in compound umbels. The plant smells and tastes of parsley. It is native to western and central North America. This photo was taken at Gloss Mountain, OK, USA.

Lomatium multifidum inflorescence with flowers

Lomatium multifidum—Fern-leaved Desert Parsley

Herbaceous perennial 30 – 140 cm tall that may be hairless, hairy, or sandpapery to the touch, with a thin dry sheath at the base. Leaves are compound and fernlike (3x pinnate), 15–35 cm wide on a 3–30 cm petiole. Small yellowish flowers appear in compound umbels with tiny bracts. The dry fruit (schizocarp) has thick wings. This Apiaceae is native to western North America from BC, Canada, south to Baja California, Mexico.

Oenanthe sarmentosa aka Water Parsley inflorescence with flowers, which is very typical of the Apiaceae.

Oenanthe sarmentosa—Water Parsley

This perennial herb grows up to 1.5 m tall with compound leaves (pinnately divided but not as fern-like as others) up to 30 cm long on long stalks up to 35 cm long. Individual leaflets are toothed and lobed. Flowers are in somewhat dense compound umbels with white to red-tinged petals. It is native to western North America from Alaska south to California.

Osmorhiza berteroi plant with flowers

Osmorhiza berteroi—Mountain Sweet Cicely

Fragrant herbaceous perennial with branching stems to 1m tall. Leaves are divided into 3 leaflets with toothed or lobed margins and are up to 20 cm long with a long leaf stalk. Small whitish flowers appear in small terminal compound umbels with 4 – 10 flowers in each umbellet, with central flowers often having only anthers. The dry fruit (schizocarp) is elongated, ribbed, and bristly and up to 2.5 cm long. It is native to temperate regions of both North and South America.

Osmorhiza longistylis Aniseroot plant with flowers.

Osmorhiza longistylus—Aniseroot

This lovely herbaceous perennial grows to about 80 cm tall with small compound umbels made of small white flowers. It is easy to identify when you crush the leaves, as they smell of anise. This Apiaceae member is native to both North and South America.

Pastinaca sativa plant with umbels of fruits

Pastinaca sativa – Wild Parsnip

Herbaceous biennial/perennial to 1.2 m tall that is easy to identify because it smells like parsnip. Leaves are alternately arranged and compound (pinnate), made of yellow-green, diamond-shaped, and coarsely toothed leaflets. Numerous yellow flowers appear in compound umbels. The dry fruit (schizocarp) is made of 2 flattened, slightly winged sections (mericarps). It may cause photosensitivity. This native of Eurasia is widely introduced and invasive.

Scandix pecten-veneris plant with flowers and needle-like fruits, which, though they look different, they are schizocarps which are typical of the Apiaceae

Scandix pecten-veneris – Shepherd’s Needle

This small herbaceous annual only grows up to 50 cm tall with compound leaves that are finely divided and fern-like. It produces small white flowers in few-rayed umbels. What it is most known for is its distinctive needle-like fruits that give it its common name. This species is native to Eurasia and is introduced throughout the USA and parts of South America.

Sium suave plant with flowers, showing odd-pinnate compound leaves common in the Apiaceae.

Sium suave—Water Parsnip

Herbaceous perennial to 3 m tall with light green, hairless stems up to 5 cm thick with few branches. Leaves appear in basal rosettes or in clusters in aquatic habitats; those on the stem are alternately arranged and compound with opposite pairs and a single terminal leaflet (odd-pinnate). The flowers are in small compound umbels with 10 – 20 small white flowers. This Eurasian native is introduced in North America.

Torilis arvensis inflorescence with flowers, another common Apiaceae style inflorescence.

Torilis arvensis – Spreading Hedge Parsley

Herbaceous annual with slender, branching, rough-hairy stems to 1 m tall. Leaves are alternate and compound (pinnate) with deeply divided or coarsely toothed lance-shaped leaflets up to 6 cm long. Open compound umbels have few flowers per umbellet that have 5 unequal-sized petals in white with pink or red tinges. Fruits are greenish to pinkish, 3 – 5 mm long, and coated with straight or curved prickles. This species is native to Europe and has been introduced in North America.

Vesper bulbosus inflorescence with flowers and fruits forming

Vesper bulbosus – Bulbous Spring-Parsley

This herbaceous spring annual grows from a large swollen taproot and has compound (2x pinnate) leaves with pale gray-green leaflets. It produces purple to pink or whitish flowers in compact umbels follwed by distinctive fruits with conspicuous tan to purplish wings. This plant is endemic to the western United States.

Saniculoideae Subfamily

Eryngium yuccifolium inflorescence with flowers; while the umbels are common in the Apiaceae, its condensed flower heads are not.

Eryngium yuccifolium—Rattlesnake Master

Herbaceous perennial to 1.8 m tall with 15 – 100 cm long, stiff, 1 – 3 cm wide, sharp-tipped, waxy blue-green leaves with spiny margins. Flowers are in dense, round, terminal flowerhead-like umbels made of 10 – 40 tiny condensed flowers with a faint honey scent and a spiny green bract beneath them, with another cluster of spiny bracts beneath the round umbel, just visible in the photo. It is native to the tallgrass prairies of the central and eastern USA.

Sanicula canadensis leaves, stem, and flowers

Sanicula canadensis—Canadian Blacksnakeroot

Herbaceous biennial or perennial 0.3 – 1.4 m tall with compound leaves made of 3 (trifoliate) egg-shaped or elliptic leaflets. Small pale green flowers in tiny bur-like compound umbels have sepals that are longer than their petals. These are followed by bur-like dry fruits (schizocarps) that split into two parts (mericarps). It is native to eastern North America, west to Wyoming, USA.

Scientific Botanical Description of the Apiaceae

Below is for citizen scientists, researchers, or anyone who wants to dive deeper into the world of botany to learn more about the Apiaceae family. Note that most botanical terms have a hover-over definition to help you better understand what they mean.

Habit & Leaf Form of the Apiaceae

Plants of the Apiaceae are usually soft-stemmed aromatic annual, biennial, or perennial herbs, but some have tough stems, and a few are even woody, tree-like, or shrubby species in the tropics. Stems are hollow between leaf joints and are often ribbed (e.g., Angelica, celery). Sometimes they are switch-plants, occasionally with the principal photosynthesizing function transferred to stems (e.g., Platysace compressa) or phyllodinous (petiole or rachis performs leaf function) (e.g., Lilaeopsis). Leaves are usually well-developed but can be reduced in switch-plants. Plants are only occasionally succulent (e.g., Crithmum) and may or may not have a basal aggregation of leaves. They can be helophytic, mesophytic, or xerophytic (e.g., Eryngium). Plants occasionally are conspicuously heterophyllous (e.g., Apium inundatum).

Leaves are small to large and arranged alternately or alternately and oppositely (usually just oppositely on upper leaves). Leaves are usually herbaceous but may occasionally be leathery or rarely fleshy. Attachment to the stem is either petiolate or sometimes perfoliate or peltate and always more or less sheathing. Sheaths have free margins and may or may not be pulvinate. Leaves may be gland-dotted and are usually malodorous to pleasant-smelling, but are almost always scented. Leaf arrangement may be simple or compound ternate, imparipinnate, bipinnate, multiply compound, or rarely palmate. When simple, the lamina is usually dissected pinnatifid, but it may also be palmatifid (as seen in Sanicula, Astrantia, and Eryngium), spinose (in Eryngium), or sometimes entire. They are pinnately, palmately, or parallel-veined. Leaves are usually without stipules (but sometimes with stipular flanges).

Flowers of the Apiaceae

Apiaceae plants are usually hermaphroditic but may also be andromonoecious, polygamomonoecious, or dioecious (Acronema). Pollination is entomophilous. Numerous small flowers are almost always in a characteristic flat-topped terminal cymose umbel(s), often compound. Sometimes they are in cymose heads or are rarely reduced to a single flower. Inflorescences may be pseudanthial, often with sterile flowers at the periphery, and may or may not have involucral bracts. Flowers are usually actinomorphic but may be zygomorphic at the umbel edge.

Flowers are usually fairly small, possess bracts, and may be regular to slightly irregular in the corolla. Flowers are usually perfectly 5-merous (except for the gynoecium) and are tetracyclic. Free hypanthium is not present. The perianth usually has a distinct calyx and corolla (but the calyx is often very reduced). The perianth may be sepaline (corolla usually present) or petaline (calyx teeth sometimes present) with 4–10 parts in two (or one) isomerous whorls. The petals are unequal in size, with those pointing outwards from the umbel larger than those pointing in. The calyx, when detectable, has five parts in one whorl that may be free or connate (often reduced to a rim but never forming a tube). Sepals are persistent and may be lobulate, blunt-lobed, or toothed. The corolla also has five parts in one whorl. The white, yellow, pink, or purple petals are always free, valvate, and may be unequal or regular. 

Androecium of the Apiaceae

The androecium has five members (all fertile stamens) that are free of the perianth and each other. They are all equal or unequal and are found in 1 whorl. Their five stamens are isomerous with the perianth, opposite sepalous, and inflexed in bud. Anthers are dorsifixed or basifixed, introrse, tetrasporangiate, and dehisce via longitudinal slits.

Gynoecium of the Apiaceae

The gynoecium is 2-carpeled, and the pistil is one- or two-celled. The gynoecium is synovarious, median, and inferior. The ovary is 2(1) locular. An epigynous disk is present. Two apical styles are free to partly joined, with their bases thickened into one or two stylopodia that crown the ovary. Stigmas are wet type, non-papillate, and Group IV type. Placentation is either axile or apical. There are 1 or 2 ovules per locule (usually 2 with 1 abortive) that are pendulous and either epitropous or anatropous. Ovules have a ventral raphe, are non-arillate, are unitegmic, and are tenuinucellate or pseudocrassinucellate.  

Fruit of the Apiaceae

The fruits of the Apiaceae are non-fleshy, dry schizocarps with 2 mericarps that are united facially. The mericarps are 1-seeded in each part, with the integument sometimes united with the pericarp. Seeds are oily and endospermic.

Taxonomy of Apiaceae

There are 3,820 species in 446 genera in the Apiaceae family of the Apiales order of the core eudicots. Then, the Apiaceae family is further divided into four main subfamilies, with a couple of unplaced genera as well.

  1. Apioideae – The largest subfamily and a diverse group of annual to perennial herbs or subshrubs or rarely a small tree. Leaves are usually palmately divided but may be pinnate or simple and entire. Venation is pinnate, but some have parallel venation. Fruits are variable and may or may not be flattened, winged, or ribbed. Cosmopolitan distribution. 
  2. Azorelloideae – Annual herbs or small shrubs, often hummock-forming. Leaves are simple, trifid to palmately lobed, and stipulate. Fruit with wings or ribs where the wings or ribs are the largest. Mostly South American, particularly the Patagonia region.
  3. Mackinlayoideae – Annual herbs to shrubs. Leaves may or may not be pedately compound, palmate to simple, and are stipulate. Fruit is drupaceous and often laterally compressed. Mostly Old World Tropics.
  4. Saniculoideae – A diverse group of annual herbs and subshrubs to trees. Leaves may be tripinnately or palmately compound or simple and often palmately lobed, and some have hairy or spiny teeth. Inflorescences are usually simple umbels or capitula, and bracts may be foliaceous or petaloid. Fruits may be barely to strongly compressed dorsally or laterally, may have 2-3 wings, or may be scaly or spiny. Cosmopolitan distribution.    

Note that Angelica (Apioideae member) looks like it is being split so that the North American species may now/soon be considered Archangelica, while many Eurasian species have been moved to other groups as the genus gets reduced by ~100 species, so I give the species numbers in a range, and the distribution data for the USA and Canada below still call it Angelica until I can get enough sources in agreement.

Genera of the Apiaceae:

Apioideae: Aciphylla (45), Acronema (35), Actinanthus (1), Actinolema (2), Adenosciadium (1), Aegokeras (3), Aegopodium (12), Aethusa (1), Afroligusticum (14), Afrosciadium (18 Not in APG), Agasyllis (1), Alepidea (31), Aletes (4), Ammi (3), Ammodaucus (1?), Ammoides (2), Ammoselinum (3), Andriana (3 Not in APG), Anethum (2), Angelica (2-106), Anginon (12), Angoseseli (1), Anisopoda (1), Anisosciadium (3), Anisotome (17), Annesorhiza (23), Anthriscus (14), Aphanopleura (3), Apiastrum (1), Apium (12), Apodicarpum (1), Arafoe (1), Arctopus (3), Arcuatopterus (5), Arracacia (42), Artedia (1), Asciadium (1), Astomaea (2), Astrantia (11 Not in APG), Astrodaucus (3), Astydamia (1?), Athamanta (12?), Aulacospermum (15?), Austropeucedanum (1?), Autumnalia (2?), Azilia (1?), Berula (7), Bifora (3), Billburttia (2), Bilacunaria (6), Bonannia (1), Bunium (34), Bupleurum (224), Cachrys (7), Calyptrosciadium (2), Cannaboides (2 not in APG), Capnophyllum (4), Carlesia (1), Caropodium (3 Not in APG), Caropsis (1), Carum (20), Caucalis (1), Cenolophium (1), Cephalopodum (2), Chaerophyllopsis (1), Chaerophyllum (69), Chaetosciadium (1), Chamaesciadium (1), Chamaesium (10), Chamarea (5), Changium (2), Choritaenia (1), Chuanminshen (1), Chymsydia (2), Cicuta (4), Cnidiocarpa (2), Cnidium (8), Coaxana (2), Conioselinum (21), Conium (6), Conopodium (8), Coriandrum (2), Cortia (3), Cortiella (5), Cotopaxia (2), Coulterophytum (4), Crithmum (1), Cryptotaenia (6), Cuminum (4), Cyathoselinum (1), Cyclorhiza (4), Cyclospermum (3), Cymbocarpum (5), Cymopterus (42), Cynosciadium (1), Dactylaea (2), Dahliaphyllum (1 Not in APG), Dasispermum (7), Daucosma (1), Daucus (45), Demavendia (1), Dethawia (1), Deverra (10? or syn. of Deverra), Dichoropetalum (36 or syn. of Dichosciadium), Dichosciadium (1), Dickinsia (1), Dicyclophora (1), Dimorphosciadium (2), Diplaspis (3), Diplolophium (7), Diplotaenia (5), Donnellsmithia (19), Dracosciadium (2), Drusa (1), Ducrosia (6), Dystaenia (2), Echinophora (11), Ekimia (4), Elaeosticta (25), Eleutherospermum (1), Elwendia (31 not in APG), Enantiophylla (1), Endressia (2), Eremodaucus (1), Ergocarpon (1), Erigenia (1), Eurytaenia (2), Exoacantha (1), Ezosciadium (1 not in APG), Falcaria (1),Fergania (1), Ferula (230), Ferulago (1), Ferulopsis (1), Foeniculum (5), Frommia (1), Froriepia (1), Fuernrohria (1), Galagania (6), Geocaryum (3),Gingidia (12), Glaucosciadium (2), Glehnia (2), Glia (3), Gongylosciadium (1), Gongylotaxis (1 not in APG), Grafia (1), Grammosciadium (4), Halosciastrum (1), Haloselinum (1 not in APG), Hansenia (9 not in APG), Haplosciadium (1), Harbouria (1), Harperella (1? or syn. Ptilimnium),  Harrysmithia (2), Haussknechtia (1), Hellenocarum (3), Helosciadium (6? or syn. Apium), Heptaptera (8), Heracleum (92), Heteromorpha (8), Hladnikia (1), Hohenackeria (2), Homalocarpus (6), Homalosciadium (1?), Horstrissea (1), Hyalolaena (9), Hymenidium (40 not in APG), Hymenolaena (3), Itasina (1), Johrenia (7), Kadenia (2), Kafirnigania (1), Kailashia (3 not in APG), Kalakia (1), Kandaharia (1), Karatavia (1), Karnataka (1), Kedarnatha (6), Kelussia (1 not in APG), Kenopleurum (1 not in APG), Keraymonia (4), Kitagawia (8), Klotzschia (3), Komarovia (1),  Komarovia (?), Korshinskia (5), Kozlovia (2), Krasnovia (1), Krubera (1), Kundmannia (1), Ladyginia (3), Lagoecia (1), Lalldhwojia (4), Laser (7), Laserpitium (8), Lecokia (1), Ledebouriella (1), Lefebvrea (10), Leiotulus (10 not in APG), Lereschia (1), Leutea (9), Levisticum (1), Lichtensteinia (7), Lignocarpa (2), Ligusticopsis (21), Ligusticum (35), Lilaeopsis (12), Limnosciadium (2), Lipskya (1), Lisaea (3), Lithosciadium (2 not in APG), Lomatium (106), Lomatocarpa (4), Lomatocarum (1 not in APG), Magadania (2), Magydaris (2), Marlothiella (1), Mastigosciadium (1), Mathiasella (1), Mediasia (1), Meeboldia (6), Melanosciadium (6), Meum (1), Modesciadium (1?), Mogoltavia (2?), Molopospermum (1?), Musineon (6), Mutellina (4?), Myrrhidendron (5), Myrrhis (1), Nanobubon (3?), Naufraga (1?), Neoconopodium (2), Neogaya (1?), Neogoezia (5), Neomuretia (2?), Neonelsonia (1), Neoparrya (1), Niphogeton (18), Nirarathamnos (1), Normantha (1), Nothosmyrnium (2), Notiosciadium (1), Notobubon (13?), Oedibasis (4), Oenanthe (35), Oligocladus (1), Oliveria (1), Opoidia (1 or syn. Peucedanum), Opopanax (4), Oreocome (10), Oreocomopsis (3?), Oreonana (3), Oreoschimperella (3), Oreoxis (2-4), Orlaya (3), Ormopterum (2), Ormosciadium (1), Osmorhiza (12), Ostericum (11 or syn. Angelica), Ottoa (1), Oxypolis (4), Pachypleurum (2), Palimbia (3), Paraligusticum (1), Parapimpinella (1), Paraselinum (1), Parasilaus (2), Pastinaca (16), Pastinacopsis (1), Paulita (3), Pedinopetalum (1), Perideridia (14), Perissocoeleum (4), Petroedmondia (1), Petroselinum (1), Peucedanum (72), Phellolophium (2), Phlojodicarpus (3), Phlyctidocarpa (1), Physospermopsis (8), Physospermum (2), Physotrichia (6), Pilopleura (2), Pimpinella (156), Pinda (2), Pleurospermopsis (2), Pleurospermum (9), Podistera (4), Polemannia (3), Polemanniopsis (2), Polytaenia (3), Polyzygus (1), Portenschlagiella (1), Postiella (1), Prangos (49), Prionosciadium (23), Psammogeton (19), Pseudocannaboides (1?), Pseudocarum (2), Pseudoridolfia (1?), Pseudoselinum (1), Pseudotrachydium (5), Pternopetalum (21), Pterygopleurum (1), Ptilimnium (5), Ptychotis (2), Pycnocycla (15), Pyramidoptera (1), Registaniella (1), Rhabdosciadium (8), Rhizomatophora (1?), Rhodosciadium (15), Rhopalosciadium (1), Rhysopterus (1?), Ridolfia (1), Rivasmartinezia (2), Rohmooa (1), Rupiphila (1), Rutheopsis (2), Sajanella (1), Saposhnikovia (1), Scaligeria (6), Scandia (2), Scandix (12), Scaraboides (1?), Schoenoselinum (1?), Schrenkia (13), Schtschurowskia (2), Schulzia (5), Sclerochorton (1), Sclerosciadium (1?), Sclerotiaria (1), Scrithacola (1), Selinopsis (2), Selinum (11), Semenovia (31), Seseli (141), Seselopsis (2), Shoshonea (1), Siculosciadium (1?), Silaum (1?), Siler (4), Sillaphyton (1?), Silphiodaucus (2), Sinocarum (18), Sinolimprichtia (1), Sison (3), Sium (10), Sivadasania (1?), Smyrniopsis (2), Smyrnium (6), Spananthe (2), Spermolepis (11), Sphaenolobium (3), Sphaerosciadium (1), Sphallerocarpus (1), Spiroceratium (1?), Spuriopimpinella (5), Stefanoffia (2), Steganotaenia (3), Stenocoelium (4), Stenosemis (2?), Stenotaenia (5?), Stewartiella (1), Stoibrax (3), Symphyoloma (1), Synclinostyles (2), Szovitsia (1), Taenidia (2), Taeniopetalum (3?), Tamamschjanella (2?), Tamamschjania (1), Tana (1?), Tauschia (34), Tetrataenium (21), Thamnosciadium (1), Thapsia (8), Thaspium (4), Thecocarpus (2), Tiedemannia (2), Tilingia (3), Todaroa (1), Tongoloa (18), Tordyliopsis (1), Tordylium (20), Torilis (15), Trachydium (11), Trachyspermum (15), Trepocarpus (1), Tricholaser (2), Trigonosciadium (7), Trinia (13), Trocdaris (1?), Trochiscanthes (1), Tschulaktavia (1?), Turgenia (2), Turgeniopsis (1?), Vanasushava (1), Vesper (6?), Vicatia (5), Villarrealia (1?), Vinogradovia (1?), Visnaga (2?), Vvedenskya (1), Xanthogalum (3? or syn. Angelica), Xatardia (1), Xyloselinum (3?), Yabea (1), Zeravschania (14), Zizia (3), Zosima (4).

Azorelloideae: Asteriscium (9), Azorella (58), Bolax (2), Bowlesia (16), Diposis (3), Domeykoa (5), Eremocharis (9), Gymnophyton (6), Microsciadium (1?), Oschatzia (2), Pozoa (2), Schizeilema (?), Stilbocarpa (?).

Mackinlayoideae: Actinotus (20), Apiopetalum (2), Brachyscias (1), Centella (55), Chlaenosciadium (1), Mackinlaya (5), Micropleura (2), Pentapeltis (2), Schoenolaena (1), Xanthosia (20).

Saniculoideae: Eryngium (254), Hacquetia (?), Petagnaea or Petagnia (1?), Sanicula (49).

Unplaced: Hermas (9), Platysace (23).

Key Differences From Similar Families

Apiaceae are both similar to and closely related to the Araliaceae Family, and often, the two can be hard to differentiate. However, some more common differences include the fact that the Apiaceae are usually herbs vs. usually shrubs and trees in the Araliaceae; the leaves that usually lack stipules in the Apiaceae vs. usually present in the Araliaceae; and the fruit is a dry schizocarp with two mericarps vs a berry-like drupe in the Araliaceae.

Distribution of Apiaceae

The Apiaceae family is a cosmopolitan family found all over the globe from frigid to tropical zones. Still, most members of the Apiaceae are in the north temperate zone.

Distribution of Apiaceae in the Americas

Canadian Apiaceae Genera Include:

Apioideae: Aegopodium 1 sp. intro to all of S Canada except AB and Labrador; Aethusa monospecific intro to ON, QC, NB, and NS; Anethum 1 sp. intro to S provinces except NS, NB, PE, and NL; Angelica 9 spp. native to all of Canada (& Greenland) except SK and MB; Anthriscus 3 spp. intro to BC, ON, QC, NB, NS, and NL (exc. Labrador); Astrantia 1 sp. intro to NL (exc. Labrador); Berula 1 sp. native to BC and ON; Bunium 1 sp. intro NL?; Bupleurum 2 spp. native to YT, AB, NT, BC, and intro to QC and ON; Carum 1 sp. intro to all of Canada except YT and Labrador; Chaerophyllum 3 spp. intro to BC, native in ON, and QC?; Cicuta 4 N temperate spp. native to all of Canada including the Arctic; Cnidium 1 sp. native to BC, YT, and NT; Conioselinum 2 N temperate spp. native to BC, ON, NL, NB, NS, and PE; Conium 1 sp. intro to BC, AB, SK, ON, QC, NB, and NS; Conopodium 1 sp. intro to NL Island; Coriandrum 1 sp. intro to ON, QC, and NS; Cryptotaenia 1 sp. a former NAM endemic native in MB, ON, and QC and extirpated in NB; Cymopterus 1 NAM endemic sp. native to AB, SK, and MB; Daucus 2 spp. including 1 native to BC and 1 intro to all of the S provinces; Erigenia monospecific E NAM endemic sp. native to ON; Foeniculum 1 sp. intro to BC, ON, and QC via cultivation; Glehnia 1 NW NAM endemic sp. native to BC; Heracleum 4 spp., inc. 1 native to all of Canada except NU and 3 spp. intro to BC, YT, ON, QC, NB, NS, PE, and NL; Levisticum monospecific intro to AB, ON, QC, and NS; Ligusticum 6 N temperate spp. native to BC, ON, QC, NL, NS, NB, PE, and NU (& Greenland); Lilaeopsis 2 spp. native in BC and NS; Lomatium 20 W+C NAM endemic spp. native to BC, AB, SK, and MB; Musineon 1 C NAM endemic sp. native to AB, SK, and MB; Myrrhis monospecific intro to BC, ON, NS, and NL Island; Oenanthe 1 sp. native to BC; Osmorhiza 6 spp. native to all of Canada; Oxypolis 2 spp. NAM endemic genus native to BC and ON; Pastinaca 1 sp. intro to all of Canada except NU; Perideridia 1 NAM endemic sp. native to BC, AB, and SK; Petroselinum monospecific intro to BC and ON; Peucedanum 1 sp. intro to ON and NS; Pimpinella 2 spp. intro to AB, ON, QC, NB, NS, NL (exc Labrador); Podistera 2 spp. native to YT and NT; Sium 1 sp. native to all of Canada including the Arctic; Taenidia 1 E NAM endemic sp. native to ON and QC; Thaspium 3 spp. E NAM endemic genera native to ON and NS; Torilis 3 spp. intro to BC, ON, and QC; Yabea monospecific W NAM endemic species native BC; Zizia 2 N NAM endemic spp. native to all of S Canada exc. PE and NL, and inc. YT.

Saniculoideae: Eryngium 4 subcosmopolitan spp. introduced to BC, AB, SK, ON, and QC; Sanicula 9 spp. native to all of S Canada except Labrador.  

USA Apiaceae Genera Include:

Apioideae: Aegopodium 1 sp. intro to WA, OR, ID, MT, MN, WI, IL, MO, KY, TN, GA, SC, NC, VA, WV, MD, DE, IN, OH, MI, PA, NJ, NY, CT, RI, MA, VT, NH, and ME; Aethusa monospecific sp. intro to ID, AR, MN, WI, IL, IN, OH, KY, MI, WV, PA, DE, NJ, NY, CT, RI, MA, and ME; Aletes 4 S NAM endemic spp. native to CO, NM, TX, and WY, including 2 narrow endemics of CO (1 of which was also in WY but has been extirpated); Ammi 2 spp. intro to OR, CA, AZ, TX, LA, MS, AL, GA, FL, SC, NC, MO, SD, and PA; Ammoselinum 2-3 spp., including 1 endemic, native to CA, AZ, NM, TX, LA, OK, KS, AR, MO, MS, TN, NC, and intro to AL; Anethum 1 sp. intro to most of the USA, including HI but excluding ID, NV, UT, WY, NM, TN, MS, AL, GA, SC, FL, VT, and NH; Angelica 22 spp. native to all of the USA, including AK, but excluding ND, SD, NE, KS, and TX; Anthriscus 3 spp. intro to WA, OR, CA, ID, MT, WY, AZ, NE, OK, MN, MO, AR, LA, GA, SC, NC, TN, VA, WV, MD, DE, WI, IL, IN, OH, MI, PA, NJ, NY, CT, RI, MA, VT, and ME; Apiastrum monospecific SW NAM endemic native to CA and AZ; Apium 4 spp. intro in WA, OR, CA, ID, UT, AZ, TX, OK, SD, MO, LA, IL, TN, MS, FL, SC, NC, OH, WV, PA, NJ, NY, CT, and MA; Berula 1 sp. native to all of the W USA from MN S to LA and all states W except LA and including MI and NY; Bifora 3 spp., including 1 S USA endemic of TX, OK, and AR, and 2 spp. intro to AL, PA, MD, NJ, and RI; Bupleurum 4 spp. native AK and native and intro to most of USA except WA, NV, UT, ND, NE, OK, MN, IA, WI, RI, ME, MS, and SC; Carum 1 sp. intro to the N half of USA from OR E to NJ and all N except NE and including UT, CO, NM, LA, MO, TN, KY, WV, VA, MD, and NC; Caucalis monospecific intro to PA and HI; Chaerophyllum 4 spp. intro and native to most of the E USA from ND S to TX and all E except ND, SD, MN, CT, MA, VT, NH, and ME, and including AZ and NM; Cicuta 4 N temperate spp. native to all of the USA, Inc. AK; Cnidium 2 spp. including 1 native in AK and 1 intro to OR; Conioselinum 4 N temperate spp. native to most of the USA, including AK, but excluding ID, NV, ND, SD, KS, OK, TX, AR, MS, AL, SC, FL, TN, KY, WV, MD, and DE; Conium 1 sp. intro to all of the USA except MS and FL; Coriandrum 1 sp. intro to WA, OR, CA, NV, MT, ND, SD, AZ, NM, TX, OK, LA, FL, MO, IL, TN, SC, NC, VA, DE, MD, MI, OH, PA, NJ, NY, CT, RI, MA, and HI; Cryptotaenia 1 former NAM endemic sp. native to all of the E USA from ND S to TX and every state E; Cryptotaenia 1 former NAM endemic sp. intro to Colombia and Peru; Cuminum 1 sp. intro to TX and MA; Cyclospermum 1 former Mexico & neoendemic sp. intro to all of the S USA from NM E to NC and inc CA, NV, OR, IL, VA, WV, MD, PA, NY, and HI; Cymopterus ~40 spp. native to all of the W half of USA from ND S to TX, including MN; Cynosciadium monospecific S USA endemic of TX, OK, LA, AR, MO, IL, TN, MS, and AL; Daucosma monospecific narrow endemic of NM and TX; Daucus 2 spp., including 1 native to the W, S, and SE USA and 1 intro to all of the USA, including AK and HI; Erigenia monospecific E NAM endemic sp. native to NE, OK, MO, AR, and WI S to MS and all E except FL, SC, DE, NJ, CT, RI, MA, VT, NH, and ME; Eurytaenia 2 S USA endemic spp. of NM, TX (1 endemic), and OK; Falcaria monospecific intro to WY, SD, NE, OK, LA, IA, MO, WI, IL, WV, VA, MD, PA, NY, and CT; Foeniculum 1 sp. intro to HI and most of the USA except ID, MT, WY, CO, ND, SD, OK, MN, AL, VT, and NH; Glehnia 1 NW NAM endemic sp. native to WA, OR, and CA; Harbouria monospecific C USA endemic of WY, CO, and NM; Harperella monospecific SE USA endemic of AL, AK, MS, GA, SC, NC, VA, MD, and OK; Helosciadium 1 sp. intro to CA, PA, and NJ; Heracleum 3 spp. inc. 1 native and 2 intro to most of the USA exc TX, OK, AR, LA, MS, AL, FL, and SC, and it is native in AK; Levisticum monospecific intro to CO, NM, MO, MN, MI, OH, PA, NJ, NY, CT, MA, VT, and ME; Ligusticum 11 N temperate spp. native to all W and E states, including AK but excluding ND, S to TX, and MN, IA, LA, FL, WI, IL, MI, and VT; Lilaeopsis 6 spp. native to WA, OR, CA, AZ, TX, LA, AR, MS, AL, FL, GA, SC, VA, NC, MD, NY, NJ, MA, NH, ME, and AK; Limnosciadium 2 spp. SE USA endemic genus of TX, OK, KS, LA, AR, MS, MO, and IA; Lomatium 89+ W+C NAM endemic spp. native to all of the W+C USA from MN S to LA and all states W exc. LA, with most being endemics of the USA; Musineon 6 C NAM endemic spp. native to ID, MT (1 narrow endemic), WY, CO, NV, UT, NM, ND, SD, and NE, including 5 endemic to the USA; Myrrhis monospecific introduced to OR, MI, and PA; Neoparrya monospecific narrow SW USA endemic of NM and CO; Oenanthe 4 spp. native to AK, WA, OR, and CA and intro to MO, OH, MD; Oreonana 3 narrow endemic spp. of CA; Oreoxis 2-4 (USDA says 4) spp. narrow endemic genus of UT, CO, and NM; Osmorhiza 8 spp. native to all of the USA including AK but exc. FL and LA, including 1 US endemic; Oxypolis 4 spp. NAM endemic genera native to all of the USA except WA, ID, WY, NV, ND, SD, NE, and KS, inc. 2 endemic to S USA; Pastinaca 1 sp. intro in all the USA exc. MS, AL, GA, and FL; Perideridia 14 NAM endemic spp. native to W USA from MT S to NM, plus SD, KS, OK, MO, AR, IL, IN, KY, TN, AL, and MS and extinct in OH, includes 12 endemic to the USA; Petroselinum monospecific intro to WA, CA, NV, UT, ID, MT, KS, TX, LA, AR, MS, FL, GA, SC, NC, IA, MI, OH, PA, MD, NJ, NY, CT, RI, MA, and HI; Peucedanum 3 spp. intro to TN, PA, NY, WV, and MA, and 1 native to HI; Pimpinella 3 spp. intro to WA, MT, MN, WI, TN, IN, MI, OH, VA, WV, MD, DE, PA, NJ, NY, CT, MA, VT, and ME; Podistera 4 spp. native to CA, UT, CO, NM, and AK; Polytaenia 3 spp. E USA endemic genus of ND, NE, KS, OK, TX, MN, IA, MO, AR, LA, MS, AL, TN, KY, WI, IL, IN, and MI; Ptilimnium 5 USA & Caribbean endemic spp. native in most of SE USA (4 endemics) from KS S to TX and E to NJ except IN, OH, and inc SD, NY, CT, RI, and MA; Scandix 1 sp. intro to WA, OR, CA, AZ, TX, SD, AL, GA, FL, SC, NC, TN, OH, MI, PA, MD, NJ, NY, RI, and MA; Selinum 1 sp. intro to MA, VT, and NY?; Seseli 1 sp. intro to MD; Shoshonea monospecific narrow endemic of WY and MT; Sium 2 spp. native to all of the USA exc. OK but inc. AK; Smyrnium 1 sp. intro in AL; Spermolepis 9 spp. native in most of S+E USA (6 endemics) from ND S to TX except the NE states but inc. NM, AZ, CA, and HI; Taenidia 2 spp. E NAM endemic genus native in all the E half of USA from ND S to TX and all E except ME, NH, CT, FL, ND, and NE, includes 1 endemic of NE USA; Tauschia 10 spp. native to WA, ID, OR, CA, and TX, about half are endemic; Thaspium 4 spp. E NAM endemic genera native to all of E USA (1 endemic) from ND S to TX and all E exc ND, SD, NE, CT, MA, VT, NH, ME; Tiedemannia 2 SE USA & Caribbean endemic spp. native to TX, LA, MS, AL, GA, FL, SC, NC, and MD, extirpated in DE; Tilingia 1 sp. native to AK; Tordylium 1 sp. intro to AZ; Torilis 5 spp. intro to most of the USA except MT S to NM, also except NV, ND, SD, MN, DE, CT, RI, VT, NH, ME, and inc. HI; Trachyspermum 1 sp. intro to MI; Trepocarpus monospecific SE USA endemic of TX, OK, LA, AR, MO, KY, TN, MS, AL, GA, FL, and SC; Turgenia 1 sp. intro to WA, OR, and PA; Vesper 6 SW NAM endemic spp. native to CA, NV, ID, UT, AZ, WY, CO, NM, SD, NE, KS, OK, and TX, including 5 SW USA endemics; Visnaga 1 sp. intro to CA, OR?, AL, TX?, FL?, NC?, and PA?; Yabea monospecific W NAM endemic sp. native to WA, ID, OR, CA, NV, UT, AZ, and NM; Zizia 3 N NAM endemic spp. native in all of the USA exc. CA, AZ, and NM, includes 1 endemic to SE USA.

Azorelloideae: Bowlesia 1 sp. native to OR, CA, NV, AZ, NM, TX, OK, LA, MS, AL, and FL. Mackinlayoideae: Centella 2 spp. native to TX, LA, AR, MS, AL, GA, FL, SC, NC, VA, MD, DE, and NJ and intro to WA, OH, and HI. Saniculoideae: Eryngium 34 subcosmopolitan spp. native and intro to all of the USA except UT, WY, MT, and ND; Sanicula 22 spp. native in all of the USA except AZ and UT, and inc. HI.

Mexico Apiaceae Genera Include:

Apioideae: Aletes 1 S NAM endemic sp. native to NW Mexico; Ammi 1 sp. intro to SW+C Mexico; Ammoselinum 1-2 spp. native to BCN, BCS, Son, Sin, Chi, Dgo, Zac, Coa, NL, Tam, SLP, Gto, Qro, Ags, and Hgo; Angelica 2 spp. native to most of Mexico except BCN, BCS, Son, Sin, Chp, Tab, Cam, Yuc, and QR; Apiastrum monospecific SW NAM sp. native to BC, BCS, Son, and Sin?; Apium 1 sp. intro to NW Mexico; Arracacia ~24 Mexico & neoendemic spp. native through all of Mexico, including several endemics; Berula 1 sp. native to Nay, Jal, Col, Mch, Gro, Oax, Chp, Pue, Cam, Yuc, and QR;Brachyscias 1 sp. intro to NE Argentina; Chaerophyllum 3 spp. native to N+SW+C Mexico and Ver, including one endemic; Cicuta 2 N temperate spp. native to Chi, Coa, NL, Tam, Dgo, Zac, Gto, Qro, Ags, SLP, and Hgo; Coaxana 2 Mexico + CAM endemic spp. native to Nay, Jal, Col, Mch, Gro, Oax, Chp, Cam, Tab, Yuc, and QR, including 1 endemic of Gro + Oax; Conioselinum  1 N temperate sp. native to BC, BCS, Son, Sin, Chi, Coa, NL, Tam, Dgo, Zac, Ags, Gto, Qro, Hgo, SLP, Nay, Jal, Col, Mch, Gro, and Oax; Coriandrum 1 sp. intro to NW+C Mexico; Coulterophytum 4 narrow Mexico endemic spp. if Mch (1), Jal (2), Dgo + Sin + Nay (1); Cuminum 1 sp. intro to Chi, Coa, NL, Tam, Dgo, and Zac; Cyclospermum 1 former Mexico & neoendemic sp. native most of Mexico except BC, BCS, Son, and Sin where it is intro; Cymopterus 2-5 NAM endemic spp. native to much of Mexico except Mex, Cd Mex, Mor, Tlx, Pue, Ver, Tab, Cam, Yuc, and QR; Dahliaphyllum monospecific endemic of Nay, Jal, Col, Mch, Gro, and Oax; Daucus 3 spp., including 2 native to all of Mexico, including the Mexican Pacific Is., and 1 sp. intro to NE+C Mexico; Donnellsmithia 19 Mexico + N neoendemic spp. native through all of Mexico, including 17 endemic to Mexico; Enantiophylla monospecific Mexico & CAM endemic native to most of Mexico except Ver, Tab, Cam, Yuc, and QR; Ligusticum 1-2 N temperate spp. native to BC, BCS, Son, Sin, Chi, Coa, NL, Tam, Dgo, Zac, Ags, SLP, Hgo, Gto, and Qro; Lilaeopsis 1 sp. native to most of Mexico except Chp, Tab, Cam, Yuc, and QR; Lomatium 1-2 W+C NAM endemic spp. native to BC, BCS, Son, and Sin; Mathiasella monospecific NE Mexico endemic of Chi, Coa, NL, Tam, Dgo, SLP, Zac, Gto, Ags, Qro, and Hgo; Myrrhidendron 1 N neoendemic sp. native to Chp, Tab, Cam, Yuc, and QR; Neogoezia 5 spp. Mexican endemic genus of N+SW+C Mexico, and Ver; Neonelsonia monospecific neoendemic native to Nay, Jal, Col, Mch, Gro, Oax, Chp, Tab, Cam, Yuc, and QR; Oenanthe 1 sp. native to Nay, Jal, Col, Mch, and Gro; Osmorhiza 3 spp. native to most of Mexico except the SE, inc. 1 narrow endemic of NL; Ottoa monospecific N neoendemic sp. native in Nay, Jal, Col, Mch, Gro, Chp, Ver, Tab, Cam, Yuc, and QR; Petroselinum monospecific intro to Mex, Cd Mex, Mor, and Pue; Prionosciadium 23 Mexico & Guatemalan endemic spp. native to all of Mexico, including 21+ endemic to Mexico; Rhodosciadium 15 Mexico & Guatemala endemic spp. native to all of Mexico (14 endemics); Spananthe 1 Mexico & neoendemic sp. native in all of Mexico; Spermolepis 4 spp. native to BC, BCS, Son, Sin, Chi, Coa, NL, Tam, Dgo, Zac, Ags, Hgo, SLP, and Ver; Tauschia ~22 spp. native, mostly endemics, in all of Mexico; Torilis 1-2 spp. intro to NE Mexico; Vesper 1 SW NAM endemic sp. native to BCN and Son; Villarrealia monospecific narrow endemic of Coa and NL; Visnaga 1 sp. intro to SW Mexico; Yabea monospecific W NAM endemic native to NW Mexico.

Azorelloideae: Bowlesia 2 spp. native to N, C, and SW Mexico. Mackinlayoideae: Centella 2 spp. mostly native to Chi, Coa, Dgo, NL, Tam, Zac, Gto, Qro, Ags, SLP, and Hgo, but 1 sp. is intro; Micropleura 1 Mexico & N neoendemic sp. native to all of Mexico. Saniculoideae: Eryngium ~55 spp. native throughout all of Mexico; Sanicula 4-5 spp. native to all of Mexico, including 2 edemics. 

Neotropical Apiaceae Genera Include:

Apioideae: Ammi 2 spp. intro to Bermuda, Bahamas, Cuba, Hispaniola, Guatemala, El Salvador, Colombia, Argentina, S Brazil, and Uruguay; Ammoselinum 1 narrow endemic sp. of NE Argentina + Uruguay; Anethum 1 sp. intro to Guatemala, Bahamas, Greater Antilles, Leeward & Windward Is, Ecuador, Peru, NE Argentina, and S+SE Brazil; Anthriscus 1-2 spp. intro to C Chile and NW Argentina; Apium 9 spp., including 8 native to Bolivia, Chile (1 endemic), Juan Fernandez Is. (2 endemic), Desventurados Is, Argentina, Paraguay, S+SE Brazil, and Uruguay (1 endemic) and 1 intro to Guatemala, Bermuda, Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Trinidad-Tobago, Ecuador, and Peru; Arracacia ~35 Mexico & neoendemic spp. of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama, Andes of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, and intro to Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, and Trinidad-Tobago; Asciadium monospecific endemic of Cuba; Austropeucedanum monospecific endemic of NW Argentina; Berula 1sp. native to Guatemala; Bupleurum 1 sp. intro to NE Argentina; Caucalis monospecific intro to NE Argentina; Chaerophyllum 3 spp. native to Guatemala, Costa Rica, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Argentina, including 2 endemics of the Andes; Coaxana 1 Mexico & CAM endemic sp. native to Guatemala and Honduras; Conium 1 sp. intro to Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Cayman Is, Hispaniola, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, S+SE Brazil, Argentina, and C+S Chile; Coriandrum 1 sp. cultivated and naturalized in Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto RIco, Trinidad-Tobago, Juan Fernandez Is., Ecuador, Peru, Paraguay, S Brazil, and Argentina; Cotopaxia 2 N SAM endemic spp. of the high Andes of Ecuador and Colombia; Cyclospermum 3 spp. native to CAM (except Belize), Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Galapagos, Peru, Bolivia, C+E+S Brazil, Paraguay, Chile, Argentina, and Uruguay, and intro to Bermuda, Greater Antilles (exc. Cayman Is.), Leeward & Windward Is., and Juan Fernandez Is., including 2 endemics of C-S SAM; Daucus 3 spp. including 2 native to Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, S+SE Brazil, Chile, Argentina, and Uruguay and 1 sp. intro to Greater Antilles (exc. Cayman Is.), Leeward Is, Trinidad-Tobago, Juan Fernandez Is, Desventurados Is., Peru, Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, and S Brazil; Donnellsmithia 2 Mexico & N neoendemic spp. native to Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Colombia, and Venezuela; Enantiophylla monospecific Mexico & CAM endemic native to Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras; Foeniculum 1 sp. cultivated and naturalized in Bermuda, the Bahamas, Greater Antilles (exc. Cayman Is.), Leeward & Windward Is, Guatemala, El Salvador, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Chile, Paraguay, Argentina, S+SE Brazil, and Uruguay; Helosciadium 1 sp. intro to N+C Chile and NE Argentina; Heracleum 1 sp. intro to Haiti; Homalocarpus 6 narrow endemics of N+C Chile; Klotzschia 3 spp. endemic genus of Brazil; Lilaeopsis 6 spp. native to Cuba, Dominican Republic, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, S Brazil (1 narrow endemic), Chile, Argentina, and Uruguay; Myrrhidendron 5 N neoendemic spp. native to Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama (1 narrow endemic), and N Andes of Colombia (1 narrow endemic) and Ecuador, including 4 endemic to neotropical zone; Neonelsonia monospecific neoendemic native to Guatemala and Andes of SAM in Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Peru; Niphogeton 18 neoendemic spp. of Costa Rica, Panama, and N Andes of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia; Notiosciadium monospecific narrow E SAM endemic of NE Argentina and Uruguay; Oenanthe 1 sp. intro to Uruguay and NE Argentina; Oligocladus monospecific Argentina endemic found throughout Argentina; Osmorhiza 4 spp. native to Guatemala, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, and C+S Chile; Ottoa monospecific N neoendemic native to Guatemala, Costa Rica, Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador; Paraselinum monospecific endemic of Peru and Bolivia; Pastinaca 1 sp. intro to Greater Antilles, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, C+S Chile, and Uruguay; Pedinopetalum monospecific endemic of the Dominican Republic; Perissocoeleum  4 spp. narrow endemics of Colombia & Venezuela; Petroselinum monospecific intro to Guatemala, El Salvador, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Ecuador, Peru, S Brazil, and Argentina; Pimpinella 2? spp. intro to Guatemala, Venezuela, N Argentina, and S Brazil; Prionosciadium 1 Mexico & Guatemala endemic sp. native in Guatemala; Ptilimnium 1 USA & Caribbean endemic sp. native to Cuba, Hispaniola, and Puerto Rico; Rhodosciadium 1 Mexico & Guatemala endemic sp. native to Guatemala; Ridolfia monospecific intro to Peru; Scandix 1 sp. intro to C Chile and NE Argentina; Seseli 1 sp. intro to C Chile; Sium 1 sp. intro to N+C Chile; Spananthe 2 spp. Mexico & neoendemic genera native CAM, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru (1 endemic), Bolivia, C +E Brazil, Haiti, and Trinidad-Tobago; Spermolepis 1 sp. endemic throughout Argentina; Tauschia 7-10 spp. native to Guatemala (2 endemics?), Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador; Tiedemannia 2 S USA & Caribbean endemic spp. native to the Bahamas and Cuba; Tordylium 1 sp. intro to NE Argentina; Torilis ~2 spp. intro to Peru, Bolivia, C Chile, N Argentina, S Brazil, and Uruguay; Visnaga 1 sp. intro to Colombia, Peru, C Chile, N Argentina, Uruguay, and S Brazil.

Azorelloideae of the Neotropics: Asteriscium 9 S SAM endemic spp. of Chile (3 endemics) and Argentina (3 endemics in NW); Azorella ~40 spp. native to Costa Rica, Venezuela, Colombia, and through the Andes S through Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina; Bowlesia 16 former neoendemic spp. native to French Guiana, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Chile (3), Argentina (3 Argentina), Uruguay, and S+SE Brazil; Diposis 3 narrow endemics of C Chile (1), S Argentina (1), and Uruguay (1); Domeykoa 5 narrow endemics of Peru and N Chile; Eremocharis 9 narrow W SAM endemics of N Chile and Peru; Gymnophyton 6 Andes endemic spp. of N+C Chile (6 endemic), Bolivia, and NW Argentina; Pozoa  2 S SAM endemics of NW+S Argentina and C+S Chile. Mackinlayoideae: Centella 1-2 spp. native to CAM (exc. Panama), Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Greater Antilles, Leeward & Windward Is., Trinidad-Tobago, Juan Fernandez Is., Galápagos, Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil (exc. N), Bolivia, Paraguay, C+S Chile, N Argentina, and Uruguay; Micropleura 2 spp. Mexico & neoendemic genus native to Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Costa Rica, and Colombia (1 endemic). Saniculoideae: Eryngium 100+ subcosmopolitan spp. native throughout CAM, SAM, the Greater Antilles (exc. Cayman Is.), Leeward & Windward Is., and Trinidad-Tobago; Sanicula ~3 spp. native to CAM (exc. Belize), Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, C+S Chile, and NW+S Argentina.

Patagonian Argentina and Southern Chile Apiaceae Genera Include:

Apioideae: Ammi 1 sp. intro to S Chile and S Argentina; Anthriscus 1? sp. intro throughout Patagonia; Apium 2 spp. native throughout Patagonia & the Falkland Is.; Chaerophyllum 1-2 spp. native to S Chile, S Argentina, and Falkland Is.; Conium 1 sp. intro throughout Patagonia and Falkland Is.; Coriandrum 1 sp. intro to S Argentina; Cyclospermum 1 sp. native throughout Patagonia; Daucus 2 spp., including 1 native and 1 intro throughout Patagonia; Foeniculum 1 sp. intro throughout Patagonia; Helosciadium 1 sp. intro to S Argentina; Heracleum  1 sp. intro to S Argentina; Homalocarpus 1 narrow endemic sp. of N+C Chile found near N limit of Patagonia in SC Chile; Levisticum monospecific intro to S Chile; Lilaeopsis 1 sp. native throughout Patagonia and the Falkland Is.; Oligocladus monospecific Argentina endemic found in S Argentina; Osmorhiza 3 spp. native throughout the Patagonia region; Pastinaca 1 sp. intro to all of Patagonia; Petroselinum monospecific intro to S Argentina; Spermolepis 1 Argentina endemic in S Argentina.

Azorelloideae: Asteriscium 3-4 S SAM endemic spp. native throughout Patagonia; Azorella 15-20 spp. native throughout Patagonia and the Falkland Is., including several endemics of the Andes and Patagonia steppe; Bolax 2 Patagonian endemic spp. of S Chile, S Argentina, and the Falkland Is.; Bowlesia 4 endemic spp. native throughout Patagonia, now introduced in France and Pakistan; Diposis 2 SAM endemic spp. including 1 narrow endemic of S Argentina; Pozoa 1-2 S SAM endemics of the Patagonia region. Mackinlayoideae: Centella 1 sp. native to C+S Chile. Saniculoideae: Eryngium ~17 spp. native throughout Patagonia; Sanicula 2 spp. native throughout Patagonia.

Additional Information and References

  • Visit Lyrae’s Dictionary of Botanical Terms to learn the terminology of botanists. Note that if you hover over most of the words in the articles, you can also get their definitions there.
  • Willis, Lyrae – Unpublished. Plant Families of North America. This is where all of the family descriptions come from. Below should be most of my references for this, as well as from personal observations of Apiaceae in North America.
  • Canadensys: Acadia University, Université de Montréal Biodiversity Centre, University of Toronto Mississauga, University of British Columbia. http://data.canadensys.net/explorer (accessed 2020 – current)
  • Delta: Watson, L., and Dallwitz, M.J. (1992 onwards). The Families of Flowering Plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval. Version: 2nd May 2020. delta-intkey.com. Accessed spring through fall of 2020.
  • Flora of North America. (1993+). https://floranorthamerica.org/Main_Page.
  • GBIF.org (2020), GBIF Home Page. Available from: https://www.gbif.org
  • Naturalista: CONABIO http://www.naturalista.mx Accessed 2020–current.
  • Neotropikey: Milliken, W., Klitgård, B., & Baracat, A. eds. (2009 onwards). Neotropikey: Interactive key and information resources for flowering plants of the Neotropics. www.kew.org/neotropikey.com (accessed 2020 – current).
  • Patagonia Wildflowers: Wildflower Identification Site. https://patagoniawildflowers.org/ Accessed throughout the fall of 2020.
  • POWO (2019). Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet; http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/ Retrieved Winter 2020 – current.
  • USDA, NRCS. (2020). The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 2 June 2020). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC, USA; accessed throughout fall of 2020.
  • WFO (2026): World Flora Online. Published on the Internet: http://www.worldfloraonline.org. Accessed Spring 2022 – current

My Current Plant Family Education Fundraiser

I am currently seeking funding to expand my website and SEO capabilities as I keep adding new families, and I am also looking to invest in a new macro lens, as I will soon be adding floral dissections to the families as they become available to me. You can donate to help support native plant education using the GoFundMe link, also at the bottom of the page.

Copyright Information

The information and the photos on this site are free to use for educational purposes, with proper attribution. For other uses, please contact me first.

You can cite this site as follows: Willis, Lyrae (2020+). Lyrae’s Nature Blog – Plant Families of North America. https://lyraenatureblog.com/. Accessed [Enter Date].

29 Mar, 2023

9 Oct, 2022

How to Identify the Apocynaceae Dogbane and Milkweed Family

Asclepias variegata Redring Milkweed inflorescence with flowers. Learn how to identify the Apocynaceae family and the Milkweed subfamily
Asclepias variegata Redring Milkweed inflorescence with flowers. The milkweeds were once their own family but are now a subfamily of Apocynaceae.
Page Last Updated May 7, 2026.

Introduction to the Apocynaceae Family

The Apocynaceae family is an important family to learn how to identify. It is a family of often showy, beautiful flowers that are frequently fragrant but also often highly poisonous if ingested. The name “dogbane” comes from this toxic nature that has poisoned livestock and dogs. The Apocynaceae was recently revised to include the former Asclepiadaceae, or milkweed, family. There is an excellent reason to do so based on molecular phylogenetics, and the two families are similar in their morphology and other properties. However, there are a few notable differences in the Asclepiadoideae subfamily that I have included in detail in the descriptions below.   

Common Botanical Description

If you’re new to plant morphology, this section is a perfect beginner’s description to teach you how to identify the Apocynaceae family, with no need to know any scientific jargon. Below is some additional information on uses of the Apocynaceae and morphology pictures you can use to help identify family members and, finally, pictures of individual species found in North America. But for researchers or those wanting to learn a more in-depth version, check out the Scientific Botanical Description below the images in addition to genus-level distribution data.

Leaves and Stems of Apocynaceae: Annual herbs to shrubs, woody vines, and trees, all having a characteristic milky white juice (latex) they release when damaged. Leaves are usually simple (not compound) and may be thin to thick and leathery. They are usually arranged in opposite pairs or whorls around the stem. In some species, the leaves are modified into spines, and the stem may appear cactus-like.

Flowers of Apocynaceae: Flowers are often large, showy, symmetrical, and come in whites, reds, blues, and yellows and may be fragrant, foul-smelling, or odorless. Petals are joined at the base to form a funnel or trumpet shape, often with twisted or contorted lobes in bud. Most flowers have nectaries at their base to attract pollinators.

Reproductive Features of Apocynaceae: There are 5 male parts (stamens) that are often fused to the female parts (ovary, style, and stigma) to create a unique central structure called a “gynostegium.” There are typically two superior ovaries (sit above where petals attach), with an often large and conspicuous style head on top that acts as a platform to receive pollen.

Fruits of Apocynaceae: The fruits are often fleshy berries or drupes (like a cherry with a hard central pit) or dry capsules that split open when ripe. The Asclepiadoideae subfamily in particular is well-known for its large pod-like capsules (follicles) containing numerous seeds accompanied by long silky hairs (comose), which allow them to disperse in the wind.

Uses of Apocynaceae 

Most parts of many members of the Apocynaceae family are poisonous, hence the common family name of dogbane, since it has been used to poison dogs and other animals. The sap of most is a milky latex, which is often toxic but can sometimes be used for medicine and rubber.

Many ornamentals come from this family, including Oleander, Frangipani, Carissa, Plumeria, etc. The Asclepiadoideae subfamily of the Apocynaceae is an important source of cultivated succulents or vines from Asclepias, Hoya, Araujia, Ceropegia, Stapelia, Caralluma, Decabelone, etc. Carissa carandas is the source of the edible natal plum. 

Wildlife Values of the Apocynaceae Family

Asclepias species are required by the famous monarch butterfly, which uses them for reproduction, depositing its eggs, which hatch into caterpillars that eat the leaves. The monarchs are able to eat the toxic sap without ill effects.

Morphology of Apocynaceae in North America

The first table shows general Apocynaceae family morphology, but then there is a second one below it showing morphology specific to the Asclepiadoideae subfamily of the Apocynaceae.

Learn to identify the Apocynaceae family with morphology photos.
Learn how to identify the milkweed subfamily of the Apocynaceae family with morphology photos.

Some Apocynaceae Species Found in North America

Apocynoideae Subfamily

Adenium obesum Desert Rose flowers.

Adenium obesum – Sabi Star or Desert Rose

This is a drought-deciduous or evergreen shrub that is native to Africa but cultivated elsewhere. It has large swollen stems with a very enlarged swollen stem (caudex). Spiral leaves are clustered at branch tips. It has tubular pink flowers 4 – 5 cm wide with 5 petals.

Apocynum androsaemifolium plant with flowers showing opposite leaves and tubular flowers characteristic of the Apocynaceae family.

Apocynum androsaemifolium – Spreading Dogbane

This is a branching herbaceous perennial with opposite and more or less egg-shaped to somewhat elliptical leaves. Flowers are small, bell-shaped, whitish-pink, and found mostly in terminal clusters like these. Native throughout North America.

Apocynum cannabinum inflorescence with flowers.

Apocynum cannabinum – Indian Hemp

Erect, herbaceous branching perennial with usually purplish-green stems and with opposite lance-shaped to egg-shaped leaves that usually have white hairs on the lower surface. Flowers are small greenish to cream-colored, usually in terminal inflorescences. Native throughout North America.

Cascabela ovata leaves and drupe showing simple leaves and a fleshy drupe characteristic of some members of the Apocynaceae family.

Cascabela ovata—Yellow Oleander

A perennial shrub or tree with spiral, moderately thick, and leathery leaves with prominent veins (pinnate). Flowers are large, showy, tubular, and yellow. The fruit is large, ~rounded and somewhat plum-like but with multiple large stony seeds, turning purplish when mature. Native and common in Mexico and also Central America.

Nerium oleander fragrant flowers

Nerium oleander – Oleander or Nerium

This cultivated Apocynaceae species is originally from the Mediterranean. It has thick, leathery, lance-shaped leaves in whorls of 2 – 3. Flowers are deeply 5-lobed with a fringed corolla around the mouth of the floral tube as seen here in the center of the flower. Flowers are intensely fragrant (perfume).

Pachypodium rutenbergianum flowers, leaves, succulent stems, and spines

Pachypodium rutenbergianum—Madagascar Palm

This is a unique-looking tree 3 – 8 m tall with very thick succulent branches, long spines, and an enlarged stem (caudex). It has long, leathery, oblong to lance-shaped leaves. Flowers are white with a yellow center, petals spreading in a pinwheel shape. Native to Madagascar & cultivated elsewhere.

Trachelospermum jasminoides flowers and leaves

Trachelospermum jasminoides—Star Jasmine

This is a vigorous, medium-sized evergreen shrub or vine with elliptic to egg-shaped hairless, glossy, green, leathery leaves. Flowers are in few-flowered clusters on long stalks; they are very fragrant and hairy inside the floral tube. This Apocynaceae member is native to Asia but widely cultivated elsewhere.

Asclepiadoideae Subfamily

Asclepias arenaria Sand Milkweed Plant with flowers showing undulate leaf margins

Asclepias arenaria – Western Sand Milkweed

Erect herbaceous perennial with densely woolly leaves and stems. Leaves are broadly egg-shaped with wavy (undulate) margins seen in the photo. Flowers are found in the leaf axils and are greenish to cream-colored. This species is endemic to the Great Plains region of the USA, very drought-tolerant.

Asclepias asperula Antelope horns plant with curved follicles; follicles are characteristic of the Apocynaceae, especially in the Asclepiadoideae subfamily.

Asclepias asperula—Antelope Horns

This is a clump-forming, 1-2 ft tall perennial with long, narrow leaves that are usually folded lengthwise as shown in the photo. Flowers are usually in roundish terminal inflorescences with greenish flowers with maroon highlights. The fruit is a follicles usually curve like a horn (see pic). It is native to the southwestern USA and northern Mexico.

Asclepias curassavica Tropical Milkweed inforescence with buds and flower

Asclepias curassavica – Tropical Milkweed

A perennial native of South America but becoming widely introduced elsewhere. Flowers have purple or red corollas and yellow or orange coronas in the center. Leaves are long and narrow with acute tips or tapering to a point. It is not recommended to grow this plant outside of the tropics because it is confusing monarchs into overwintering in temperate climates instead of migrating.

Asclepias engelmanniana follicles and narrow leaves

Asclepias engelmanniana – Engelmann’s Milkweed

A tall, slender perennial with 1 – 4 branching stems with long and very narrow linear leaves, usually in groups of 2 – 3. Pale green flowers without horns are crowded in umbels in the upper leaf axils. This species is endemic to the Great Plains of the USA.

Asclepias incarnata Swamp Milkweed inforescences with flowers

Asclepias incarnata—Swamp Milkweed

A herbaceous perennial that is branched on the upper part of the stem and has lance-shaped to linear–oblong leaves. The flower’s corolla is pink to red (rarely white), and the horn curves inward past the hood. This lovely plant is native to swamps and other wet areas of eastern North America.

Asclepias latifolia Broadleaf Milkweed plant with fruit, showing broad cabbage-like leaves

Asclepias latifolia – Broadleaf Milkweed

This unbranched, 2 – 3 ft tall herbaceous perennial has very large, broad, somewhat egg-shaped or val leaves with prominent veins. Leaves are densely packed, appearing cabbage-like when young. Flowers are pale greenish to yellow, often hidden in axils by the large leaves. Native to the western USA and northern Mexico, mostly in the Great Plains.

Asclepias pumila Plains Milkweed inflorescence with flowers.

Asclepias pumila – Plains Milkweed

This short herbaceous perennial is usually less than 30 cm tall with narrow leaves that are densely packed, appearing whorled but are not upon close inspection. Flowers are light pink or white in terminal inflorescences. This is another endemic of the Great Plains region of the USA.

Asclepias speciosa Showy Milkweed star-shaped corona of hoods and horns characterisitic of the subfamily of the Apocynaceae.

Asclepias speciosa – Showy Milkweed

Herbaceous perennial up to 1.2 m tall with oppositely arranged, elongated, simple leaves. Large, hairy, pale pink to pinkish-purple flowers appear in dense umbel-like clusters and have very prominent hoods and hooks forming a star shape. Native to western North America.

Asclepias subverticillata Horsetail Milkweed inflorescence with flowers

Asclepias subverticillata – Horsetail Milkweed

This erect, spreading, herbaceous perennial may or may not be branched and grows to 1 m tall with sparse, narrow, linear leaves with margins that roll backward on the edge (revolute) and grow in whorls of 3 – 5 at branch nodes. Star-like whitish or cream flowers grow in the upper leaf axils. It is native to the central and southwestern USA and northern Mexico.

Asclepias subverticillata Common Milkweed infructescence of rough-textured follicles; follicles are a characteristic fruit of the Apocynaceae.

Asclepias syriaca—Common Milkweed

A tall perennial up to 1 m tall with large egg-shaped to somewhat elliptic leaves with pale green on the lower surface. Flowers are in somewhat drooping umbels in leaf axils and are usually pink (rarely white), with horns that bend inwards. The follicles have a very roughly textured surface (shown in the photo). Native to the eastern USA and Canada.

Asclepias tuberosa Butterfly Milkweed inflorescence of bright orange flowers

Asclepias tuberosa—Butterfly weed

A bushy herbaceous perennial to 60 cm tall, with a hairy stem that may or may not branch in the top half. Leaves are linear to narrowly egg-shaped and may be rranged opposite or alternate on branches. Flowers are in terminal flat-topped umbels of yellow to red-orange flowers. Native to southeastern Canada and the eastern and southwestern USA.

Asclepias variegata Redring Milkweed inflorescence with flowers

Asclepias variegata—Red Ring Milkweed

Herbaceous perennial with usually unbranched stems with several pairs of opposite broadly oblong to ovate leaves. Flowers in 1 – 4 rounded, compact umbels with showy white and pinkish-red-tinged flowers with spreading hoods. Native to eastern North America, rare in the north, most common in the southeastern USA.

Asclepias verticillata Whorled Milkweed inflorescence with flowers

Asclepias verticillata – Whorled Milkweed

An erect perennial with branching only at the top of the plant (or unbranched) with numerous narrow linear leaves in whorls of 3 – 6. Flowers are in several umbels crowded in the upper axils with white to greenish flowers with somewhat spreading hoods and horns that are larger than the hoods. Native to eastern North America and parts of western North America.

Asclepias viridis inflorescence of green flowers with purple hoods and no horns; somewhat unusual in the milkweed subfamily of the Apocynaceae.

Asclepias viridis – Green Antelope Horns

A herbaceous perennial common on overgrazed pastures and roadsides. Simple leaves, often with wavy (undulate) edges, are arranged alternately on the stems. Flowers are green with purplish hoods, and they lack the horns usually present in the genus. This species is endemic to the south-central and some of the southeastern USA.

Cynanchum laeve leaves and flowers

Cyanchum laeve – Climbing Milkweed or Sand Vine

This is a climbing vine that is sparsely hairy with opposite heart-shaped leaves with palmate veins. Flowers are in clusters of 5 – 40 flowers in the leaf axils. The fruit is an egg-shaped follicle. Native to central and eastern USA, southeastern Canada

Funastrum clausum flowers and leaves

Funastrum clausum—White Twinevine

A tendril-climbing perennial vine with linear to oblong leaves that are hairy and somewhat succulent. Flowers appear in the leaf axils and have soft-hairy white petals. This species is native to the southern USA, Mexico, and the tropical Americas.

Rauvolfioideae Subfamily

Carissa macrocarpa Natal Plum flower and leaves; shrubs with tubuiar flowers are common in the Apocynaceae family.

Carissa macrocarpa—Natal Plum

Spiny evergreen shrub with leathery, glossy dark green leaves. Flowers are very fragrant and white with long narrow petals. The fruit is a large, reddish, edible drupe (looks like a plum). Native to Africa, cultivated in southern North America and tropical Americas.

Catharanthus roseus Madagascar Periwinkle plant with flower

Catharanthus roseus – Madagascar Periwinkle

An evergreen subshrub with hairless egg-shaped, somewhat glossy leaves arranged in opposite pairs. Flowers are white with yellow or red centers or dark pink with red centers. Native to Madagascar but frequently cultivated in North America.

Plumeria rubra Red Frangipani in its native habitat in the dry season

Plumeria rubra – Red Frangipani

A medium to large shrub or small tree with a succulent trunk and branches. Drought-deciduous or semi-evergreen with large leaves clustered at branch ends. Flowers are white to pink and very fragrant in terminal umbels. Native to Mexico and tropical America, widely cultivated elsewhere.

Rauvolfia tetraphylla Devil Pepper leaves and fruit

Rauvolfia tetraphylla – Devil Pepper

A much-branched shrub or small tree with 4 (3 – 5) whorled egg-shaped, elliptic, or ~oblong leaves per node. Flowers are small and white and appear in clusters in the leaf axils. The fruit is a small red 2-seeded drupe (shown in photo). Native to Mexico and the tropical Americas.

Vinca major Greater Periwinkle flowers and leaves

Vinca major – Greater Periwinkle

A scrambling vine with opposite semi-evergreen leaves with a waxy surface and tiny hairs, sometimes with hairy margins. Flowers are pink to violet, fused at the base, with pinwheel-like lobes. Native to the western Mediterranean, widely cultivated as a groundcover, and highly invasive in some areas.

Vinca minor Periwinkle plant with flower, a common vine. This subfamily is variable making it a bit harder to identify than most of the Apocynaceae.

Vinca minor – Periwinkle

A scrambling vine with opposite hairless evergreen leaves that are smaller and narrower than V. major and never have a hairy margin. Flowers are similar to V. major but a little smaller. This Apocynaceae member is native to Eurasia, widely cultivated and highly invasive in some areas.

Scientific Botanical Description of the Apocynaceae

Learn even more about how to identify the Apocynaceae family and the milkweed subfamily with this scientific botanical description.

Habit & Leaf Form of the Apocynaceae Family

The Apocynaceae are mostly annual or perennial shrubs, lianas, or herbs but sometimes are trees, and those trees may have buttress roots (a few in Tabernaemontana and Dyera). All forms are laticiferous, containing a milky latex characteristic of the family. They are self-supporting or climbing-stem twiners, root climbers, or scramblers; when twining, they usually twine anticlockwise. Some plants may be switch plants with succulent, photosynthetic stems. Others have peculiar vegetative forms like the leaves modified as passive pitcher traps in Dischidia rafflesiana. Leaves are usually well-developed but may be very reduced. They are persistent and simple. Leaves are herbaceous, leathery, membranous, or rarely modified into spines. They may be attached alternately, opposite, whorled (three per whorl), or rarely spiral. The leaf lamina is entire and is frequently pinnately veined but may also be one-veined or pinnately to palmately veined. Leaves are usually exstipulate but may be stipulate and sometimes are reduced to colleters found in the stipular position. Domatia occur in 18 genera as pits, pockets, or hair tufts. The leaf lamina is usually dorsiventral, sometimes bifacial, or isobilateral in Nerium oleander. The epidermis sometimes contains crystal idioblasts. Diverse forms of hairs are often found, and they may be eglandular or glandular, often with glandular, shaggy hairs at the lamina bases and on the petiole. Complex hairs are usually not present (except for Pachypodium).

Flowers of the Apocynaceae Family

Plants are hermaphrodites; pollination is entomophilous and often conspicuously specialized with trapping mechanisms using modified stylar heads or specialized anthers. Flowers are terminal or axillary and either solitary or aggregated in panicles, cymose (often umbelliform), or rarely racemose inflorescences. The flowers are often large and showy and are usually bracteate and bracteolate. They are regular, 4-5 merous, tetracyclic, and may be malodorous, fragrant, or odorless. A hypogynous disk is usually present except in the Asclepiadoideae, where it is always absent. The perianth has ten parts in two whorls with a distinct calyx and corolla, which is isomerous. The calyx has five parts in one whorl, is usually connate (at least basally), is regular, and is quincuncial (Apocynoideae), imbricate (Asclepiadoideae), or valvular (Asclepiadoideae). The corolla also has five parts in one whorl and may or may not be appendaged. The corolla is connate with the lobes shorter than or longer than the tube. It is usually contorted or rarely valvate, is funnel-shaped or salverform and regular, and comes in various shades of white, yellow, red, orange, pink, purple, or blue.

Androecium of the Apocynaceae Family

The androecium can vary depending on the Apocynaceae subfamily or tribe. Still, there are five members that are adnate and inserted near the base (always Asclepiadoideae), midway down, or in the throat of the corolla tube. They are usually united with the gynoecium (most Apocynoideae) and may form a gynostegium (always in Asclepiadoideae), or they are free of the gynoecium (most Plumerieae, Periplocoideae). They are free of one another or coherent (always one adelphous in Asclepiadoideae) and are one whorled and consist of exclusively fertile stamens. The stamens are isomerous with the perianth and alternate with the corolla members. The anthers are filantherous to sessile and may or may not be appendiculate. In the Asclepiadoideae, the filaments are almost always appendiculate, with their short filaments ornamented from their bases with nectaries. They are separate, cohering, or connivent (often sagittate in Apocynoideae and distinct from one another but attached adaxially to the stylar head in Asclepiadoideae). The anthers are basifixed or adnate, non-versatile, tetrasporangiate, introrse, and usually bilocular and bisporangiate. In Asclepiadoideae, the anthers are appendaged with horny wings and membranous connective appendages contributing to the coronal complex.  

Gynoecium of the Apocynaceae Family

The gynoecium almost always has two carpels but occasionally may have 2–5 (6–8) (especially in Pleiocarpa). Sometimes the ovary is interpreted as two locular when it is actually the separate ovaries of a syncarpous gynoecium. The pistil has 1–2 cells. The gynoecium is synstylovarious to syncarpous or synstylous (Asclepiadoideae, Plumerieae, Pleiocarpa) and is often superior or otherwise partly inferior. When synstylous, the carpel has 2–50 ovules. Placentation is marginal when synstylous. The gynoecium is usually transverse but always median in Asclepiadoideae. There is usually one style but always two in Asclepiadoideae that are partially joined (free below) by the dilated style head with lateral stigmatic surfaces that alternate with the stamens. There is one stigma that is usually massively expanded and may be contracted in the middle with a ring of hairs or a membrane below. Stigmas are wet or dry types, papillate or not, and either Group II, III, or IV types. Placentation when unilocular with two placentas is parietal and when bilocular (mostly) axile or apical. When bilocular (usually), there are 5–50 (1-4) ovules per locule, and when unilocular or incompletely bilocular, there are 2–100. Ovules are pendulous, anatropous, unitegmic, tenuinucellate (Apocynoideae), or pseudocrassinucellate (Asclepiadoideae).

Fruit of the Apocynaceae Family

The fruits of Apocynaceae are often a fleshy or non-fleshy dehiscent capsule or schizocarp with two mericarps of follicles, berrylets, nutlets, or drupelets. Sometimes it is a fleshy indehiscent berry or a drupe. In Asclepiadoideae, it is always a pair of follicles with thin papery placental flaps or may be a single follicle by abortion of the other carpel. Seeds are oily and may or may not be endospermic or not. They are usually flat and conspicuously hairy (comose in Apocynoideae and Asclepiadoideae) or not and may be winged or wingless.

Taxonomy of the Apocynaceae

The Apocynaceae contains 4555 – 5100 species in 400 genera contained within five subfamilies. It is part of the Gentianales order of the core eudicots. The Asclepiadoideae was recently included in Apocynaceae, greatly increasing the number of species and genera. As with most families, thanks to molecular phylogenetics clarifying our understanding of the plant families, the genera and species have been undergoing revisions. If major updates have been made, I will also update the lists here.

  1. Apocynoideae is a diverse subfamily of annual or perennial herbs, shrubs, lianas, and the occasional tree. They exude milky latex, but it is sometimes clear. Leaves are simple and entire but otherwise variable. They usually are exstipulate or have very small stipules. The stamens are almost always usually united with the gynoecium but do not form a true gynostegium; they also lack pollinaria. 
  2. Asclepiadoideae is a subfamily that can usually be easily recognized by the presence of a gynostegium with its one adelphous stamens and two styles that are partially joined (free below) by the dilated style head with lateral stigmatic surfaces that alternate with the stamens. The stamens are often appendaged at their bases, forming “hoods” and “horns.” There is no hypogynous disk, and the gynoecium is also always median; both of these characteristics are unlike the rest of the family. The fruit is always a follicle (1-2). Most species exude the same milky latex as most of the family.
  3. Periplocoideae is a family of herbs, shrubs, vines, or rarely small trees. Colleters are present in the sinuses of the calyx. The stamens are free of the gynoecium (unlike most of the family, excluding Plumerieae in Rauvolfioideae), but the triangular anthers are adnate to the style head.  
  4. Rauvolfioideae is split into eleven diverse tribes. In general, they are mostly trees and shrubs with some herbs or lianas. They also have variable fruit and floral morphology. Sometimes the stamens are free of the gynoecium (unlike most of the family except Periplocoideae). 
  5. Secamonoideae is a small subfamily of lianas or vines that climb by twining; rarely, they may be shrubs. Sometimes there are colleters on the adaxial leaf surface. 

Genera:

Apocynoideae: Adenium (6), Aganosma (9), Alafia (25), Allomarkgrafia (10), Allowoodsonia (1), Amalocalyx (1), Amphineurion (1), Anodendron (17), Apocynum (5), Artia (5), Asketanthera (4), Baharuia (1), Bahiella (2), Baissea (25), Beaumontia (9), Carruthersia (4), Cascabela (6 Not in APG), Chonemorpha (10), Cleghornia (2), Cycladenia (1), Dewevrella (1), Echites (14), Ecua (1), Elytropus (1), Epigynum (5), Eucorymbia (1), Farquharia (1), Forsteronia (45), Funtumia (2), Galactophora (6), Holarrhena (6), Hylaea (2), Ichnocarpus (3), Isonema (3), Ixodonerium (1), Kibatalia (15), Laubertia (4), Macropharynx (15), Malouetia (32), Mandevilla (183), Mascarenhasia (8), Mesechites (8), Micrechites (15), Motandra (3), Neobracea (8), Nerium (1), Odontadenia (23), Oncinotis (8), Pachypodium (23), Pacouria (3), Papuechites (1), Parepigynum (1), Parsonsia (85), Pentalinon (2), Pinochia (4), Pleioceras (5), Pottsia (3), Prestonia (63), Rhabdadenia (3), Rhodocalyx (2), Salpinctes (1), Sindechites (1), Spirolobium (1), Stephanostema (1), Stipecoma (1), Streptoechites (1), Strophanthus (39), Temnadenia (2), Thenardia (3), Thoreauea (3), Thyrsanthella (1), Tintinnabularia (3), Trachelospermum (10), Urceola (21), Vallaris (2), Wrightia (34). 

Asclepiadoideae: Adelostemma (?), Aidomene (?), Anemotrochus (3), Anisopus (4), Anisotoma (3), Apteranthes (7), Araujia (13), Asclepias (210),Aspidoglossum (37), Aspidonepsis (5), Astephanus (2), Asterostemma (1), Australluma (2), Barjonia (7), Blepharodon (4-6), Calciphila (2), Calotropis (3), Campestigma (1), Caralluma (31 Not in APG), Ceropegia (473), Chlorocyathus (2), Cibirhiza (3), Cionura (1), Conomitra (1), Cordylogyne (2), Cosmostigma (3), Cristobalia (4 Not in APG), Cynanchum (259), Diplolepis (14), Dischidanthus (2), Dischidia (128), Ditassa (114), Dittoceras (?), Dolichopetalum (1?), Echidnopsis (36? = Ceropegia), Emicocarpus (1), Emplectanthus (3), Eustegia (5), Fanninia (1), Fischeria (17), Fockea (6), Funastrum (22), Glossonema (?), Glossostelma (12), Gomphocarpus (20), Gongronema (7), Gongronemopsis (9), Gonolobus (~140), Graphistemma (? = Cyanchum), Gunnessia (1?), Gymnema (53), Gymnemopsis (5?), Gyrostelma (1), Harmandiella (1), Hemipogon (9), Heterostemma (45), Heynella (1), Hoya (569), Hypolobus (1), Ibatia (36), Jobinia (25), Kanahia (2), Lachnostoma (16), Lagarinthus (?), Leptadenia (9), Lygisma (5), Macroscepis (21), Margaretta (1), Marsdenia (69-84), Matelea (181), Metastelma (94), Microloma (11), Minaria (22), Miraglossum (7), Monsanima (2), Nautonia (1), Neoschumannia (3), Nephradenia (5), Oncinema (1), Oreosparte (3), Orthosia (55), Oxypetalum (139), Oxystelma (2), Pachycarpus (39), Papuahoya (3), Parapodium (3), Pentacyphus (3), Pentasacme (6), Pentatropis (4), Peplonia (9), Pergularia (2), Petalostelma (12), Pherotrichis (4), Philibertia (45), Piaranthus (9), Pseudolachnostoma (12), Pycnorhachis (1), Rhyssolobium (1), Rhytidostemma (8), Riocreuxia (10), Rojasia  (1), Ruehssia (146), Sarcolobus (22), Schizoglossum (26), Schizostephanus  (2), Schubertia (6?), Scyphostelma (39), Sicyocarpus (1), Sisyranthus (15), Solenostemma (1), Stathmostelma (14), Stelmagonum (1), Stenostelma (6), Stephanotis (18), Stigmatorhynchus (2), Suberogerens (1),Talayotea (2), Tassadia (31), Telosma (9), Topea (2 Not in APG), Treutlera (1), Tweedia (6), Tylodontia (4), Vincetoxicum (264), Woodia (3), Xysmalobium (40).

Periplocoideae: Atherandra (1), Baroniella (10), Baseonema (1), Batesanthus (3), Buckollia (2), Camptocarpus (9), Cryptolepis (34), Cryptostegia (2), Decalepis (5), Ectadium (2), Epistemma (4), Finlaysonia (6), Gymnanthera (2), Hemidesmus (1), Ischnolepis (1), Maclaudia (1), Mondia (2), Myriopteron (1), Pentopetia (23), Periploca (17), Petopentia (2), Phyllanthera (10), Raphionacme (36), Sacleuxia (2), Sarcorrhiza (1), Schlechterella (2); Stomatostemma (1), Streptocaulon (5); Tacazzea (5), Telectadium (3), Zygostelma (1). 

Rauvolfioideae: Acokanthera (5), Allamanda (16), Alstonia (44), Alyxia (117), Ambelania (3), Amsonia (17), Ancylobothrys (8), Anechites (1), Aspidosperma (80), Bousigonia (3), Callichilia (6), Calocrater (1), Cameraria (7), Carissa (11-15), Carvalhoa (2), Catharanthus (9), Cerbera (6), Cerberiopsis (3), Chamaeclitandra (1), Chilocarpus (14), Clitandra (1), Condylocarpon (7), Couma (5), Craspidospermum (1), Crioceras (1), Cyclocotyla (1), Cylindropsis (1), Dictyophleba (6), Diplorhynchus (1), Dyera (2), Geissospermum (5), Gonioma (2), Hancornia (1), Haplophyton (2), Himatanthus (9), Hunteria (9), Kamettia (2), Kopsia (25), Lacmellea (24), Landolphia (63), Laxoplumeria (5), Lepinia (4), Lepiniopsis (2), Leuconotis (4), Macoubea (3), Melodinus (25), Microplumeria (1), Molongum (3), Mortoniella (1), Mucoa (2), Neocouma (2), Ochrosia (44), Orthopichonia (6), Parahancornia (7), Petchia (8), Picralima (1), Plectaneia (3), Pleiocarpa (7), Plumeria (18), Pteralyxia (2), Pycnobotrya (1), Rauvolfia (78), Rhigospira (1), Saba (3), Schizozygia (1), Skytanthus (3), Spongiosperma (6), Stephanostegia (2), Strempeliopsis (2), Tabernaemontana (126), Tabernanthe (2), Thevetia (3), Vahadenia (2), Vallesia (10), Vinca (7), Voacanga (22), Willughbeia (16),

Secamonoideae: Calyptranthera (13), Genianthus (17? or syn. of Secamone), Goniostemma (2), Pervillaea (5), Secamone (150), Secamonopsis (2), Toxocarpus (29), Trichosandra (1).

Distribution of the Apocynaceae

The Apocynaceae are mostly subtropical to tropical with a few temperate representatives. They are cosmopolitan in distribution, and they are widely found throughout the entire Americas, including some herbaceous Apocynaceae species that are found as far north as Arctic Canada. 

Distribution of Apocynaceae in the Americas

Canadian Apocynaceae Genera Include:

Apocynoideae: Apocynum 2 spp. native in almost all of Canada, including the Arctic but excluding NU and Labrador, 1 NAM hybrid sp. also native in this range. Asclepiadoideae: Asclepias 15 spp. native in all S provinces but intro in NL (absent in Labrador); Cynanchum 1 sp. intro in ON; Vincetoxicum 3 spp. intro to BC, ON, QC, and NB. Rauvolfioideae: Vinca 2 spp. intro to BC, ON, QC, NS, and NB.

USA Apocynaceae Genera Include:

Apocynoideae in the USA: Apocynum 2 spp. native to all of the USA including AK, plus 1 NAM hybrid sp. native in this range; Beaumontia 1 sp. intro HI?; Cycladenia monospecific SW USA endemic of CA, OR, AZ, and UT; Echites 1 sp. native to FL; Mandevilla 4 spp. native to AZ, NM, and TX; Nerium monospecific sp. intro to most of S border states exc NM, also in UT and CA; Pentalinon 1 Mexico, CAM & Caribbean endemic sp. native to S FL; Rhabdadenia 1 S NAM & neoendemic sp. native to FL; Thyrsanthella monospecific SE USA endemic of OK, TX, MO, AR, LA, IL, IN, KY, TN, MS, AL, GA, FL, SC, NC, VA, and DE; Trachelospermum 2 spp. intro TX, OK, MO, AR, LA, MS, AL, GA, FL, SC, NC, VA, MD, DE, TN, KY, IL, and IN. 

Asclepiadoideae in the USA: Araujia 2 former neoendemic spp. intro to CA, GA, and FL; Asclepias 75 spp. native to all the continental states and HI, with some intro in some states; Calotropis 2 spp. intro to CA, FL, and HI; Cynanchum 17 spp. native and intro to most of the USA exc WA, OR, WY, MT, CO, ND, and SD; Funastrum 5-7 spp. native to CA, NV, UT, CO, AZ, NM, TX, OK, AR, and FL; Gomphocarpus 1 sp. intro to CA?; Gonolobus 3 spp. native to AZ, KS, OK, TX, MO, AR, LA, IL, IN, KY, TN, MS, AL, GA, FL, NC, SC, VA, and MD; Hoya 1sp. intro to HI; Matelea 24 spp. (may be less now that genus has been reduced) sp. native to the most southern states; Metastelma ? sp. native to AZ, NM, TX, and FL (USDA-NRCS considers it a syn. of Cyanchum); Orthosia 1? sp. native to MS, FL, GA, and SC; Pherotrichis 1 sp. native to AZ; Suberogerens monospecific endemic of W+SE Mexico, and Ver; Vincetoxicum 3 spp. intro to CA, NE, KS, MN, MO, MI, WI, IL, IN, KY, OH, PA, NJ, MD, NY, CT, RI, MA, VT, NH, and ME.

Periplocoideaein the USA: Cryptostegia 2 spp. intro to TX and FL; Periploca 1 sp. intro to KS, OK, TX, TN, VA, PA, NJ, NY, CT, and RI.

Rauvolfioideae in the USA: Allamanda 1 former neoendemic sp. intro to FL; Alstonia 1 sp. intro to FL and HI; Alyxia 1 Pacific sp. native to HI; Amsonia 16 spp., including 14 native to all of S USA from CA E to NJ but excluding WV, which includes 7 endemic to the USA and 3 narrow endemics of AZ (2) and NM (1), and includes 2 spp. intro to NY, CT, and MA; Carissa 1 sp. intro to AZ, TX, and FL; Catharanthus 1 sp. intro to CA, TX, LA, MS, FL, GA, SC, NC, OH, and HI; Haplophyton 1 S NAM & N CAM endemic spp. native to AZ, NM, and TX; Ochrosia 4 spp. native to HI and intro to FL; Plumeria 1 sp. native FL; Pteralyxia 2 spp. endemic genera of HI; Rauvolfia 3 spp. inc. native in FL, and intro and native in HI; Tabernaemontana 2 spp. native to FL and intro HI; Thevetia 1 Neo sp. intro to TX, FL, and HI; Vallesia 2 Americas endemic spp., inc. 1 native and 1 intro to CA and FL; Vinca 3 spp. intro to most of USA except NV, OK, CO, WY, ND, and SD.

Mexico Apocynaceae Genera Include:

Apocynoideae in Mexico: Apocynum 1 sp. native to N Mexico, plus 1 NAM hybrid sp. native in this range; Cascabela 5 spp. native to all of Mexico, including 3 endemics; Echites 7 NAM, CAM & Caribbean spp. native to most of Mexico, exc. BC, BCS, Son, and Sin, and inc. 1 endemic to SW+C Mexico; Forsteronia 1-3? Neoendemic sp. native to SW+SE Mexico, Ver, Chp; Laubertia 1 Mexico endemic sp. in most of Mexico exc. Ver; Mandevilla ~22 spp. native (~1/2 endemic) to all of Mexico; Mesechites 1 Mexico & Neoendemic sp. native to Mexico except for BC, BCS, Son, Sin, Mex, Cd Mex, Pue, Tlx, and Mor; Nerium monospecific sp. intro to most of Mexico exc. BC, BCS, Son, Sin, and Ver; Odontadenia 1 neoendemic sp. native SW+SE Mexico, Chp; Pentalinon 1 Mexico, CAM & Caribbean endemic s.p native SW+C+SE Mexico; Pinochia 2 Mexico & N Neo endemic spp. native to SW+SE Mexico, Chp, and Ver; Prestonia ~5 soo native to most of Mexico exc. BC, BCS, Son, and Sin; Rhabdadenia 1 S NAM & neoendemic sp. native to Ver, Cam, Tab, Yuc, QR, and Chp; Thenardia 3 Mexico & Honduras endemic spp. native SW+C+SE Mexico, inc 2 endemics; Thoreauea 3 spp. endemic genus of SW Mexico + Ver; Tintinnabularia 2 Mesoamerica endemic spp. native Oax, Chp, and Ver, inc 1 narrow endemic of Ver.  

Asclepiadoideae in Mexico: Asclepias 70+ spp. native to all of Mexico; Calotropis 1 sp. intro to SW+C+SE Mexico; Cynanchum several spp. native to all of Mexico; Fischeria 1 Neoendemic sp. native to SW+C+SE Mexico; Funastrum 13 spp. native throughout all of Mexico, including 3 endemics; Gomphocarpus 1 sp. intro to SW Mexico; Gonolobus ~50 spp., about half of which are endemic and native to all of Mexico; Jobinia 1 sp. native Ver; Macroscepis 5 Mexico & neoendemic spp. native to all of Mexico, including 2 narrow endemics; Matelea ~70 spp, ~60% endemic to all of Mexico; Metastelma ~30 spp. native to all of Mexico, including Mexican Pacific Is., including many endemics; Orthosia 9 spp. inc. 6 endemics native to all of Mexico; Oxypetalum 1-2 spp. native to NE+SW+SE Mexico, and Ver; Pherotrichis 4 Mexico & N CAM endemic spp. native to most of Mexico except Ver, including 2 Mexican endemics of SW Mexico; Ruehssia ~40 Mexico & neoendemic spp. native to all of Mexico, with ~68% endemism; Stelmagonum monospecific endemic of SW Mexico; Talayotea 2 spp. endemic genera of most of Mexico except Ver;Tassadia 1 neoendemic sp. native to SW+SE Mexico, and Ver. 

Periplocoideae in Mexico: Cryptostegia 2 spp. intro to W+SE Mexico.

Rauvolfioideae in Mexico: Allamanda 1 former neoendemic sp. intro to SW+C Mexico; Alstonia 1 sp. native to SW+C+SE Mexico; Amsonia 4 spp. native to N Mexico; Aspidosperma 5-7+ neoendemic spp. native to SW+SE Mexico, Ver, including 2? endemics; Cameraria 1 former Mexico + N Neoendemic sp. native to SE Mexico; Carissa 1 sp. intro to SW+C Mexico; Catharanthus 1 sp. intro to SW+SE Mexico; Haplophyton 2 S NAM & N CAM endemic spp. native to most of Mexico except Ver; Plumeria 2 spp. native to all of Mexico; Rauvolfia 3-4 spp. native to all of Mexico; Tabernaemontana ~16 spp. native to all of Mexico, including 6 endemics; Thevetia 1 sp. native to most of Mexico except BC, BCS, Son, and Sin; Vallesia 8 Americas endemic spp. native to all of Mexico, inc. 5 narrow endemics; Vinca 1 sp. intro to SW+C+SE Mexico.

Neotropical Apocynaceae Genera Include:

Apocynoideaein the Neotropics:Allomarkgrafia 10 neoendemic spp. of Honduras S to Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru; Anodendron 1 sp. intro to Trinidad-Tobago; Asketanthera 4 Greater Antilles endemic spp. of Cuba, Dominican Republic, and Haiti; Bahiella 2 narrow endemic spp. of NE Brazil; Beaumontia 1 sp. intro to Costa Rica, Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras; Cascabela 3 spp. former native CAM S through tropical SAM to Peru, Bolivia, NE Argentina, SE Brazil (exc. NE Brazil), and intro to Bermuda, Bahamas, Antilles (exc. Cayman Is., Netherlands Antilles); Echites 13 NAM, CAM & Caribbean endemic spp. of CAM, Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Greater Antilles, and Leeward Is., inc. 4 narrow endemics of Cuba (2), Costa Rica (1), Panama (1); Forsteronia 45 Neoendemic spp. native to Cuba, Jamaica, Trinidad-Tobago, CAM, and tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc. N Chile); Funtumia 1 sp. intro to Cuba, Puerto Rico, Trinidad-Tobago, and El Salvador; Galactophora 6 SAM endemic spp. of Colombia, N+C Brazil, Venezuela, Guyana, Peru, and Bolivia; Hylaea 2 N SAM endemic spp. of S Venezuela and N Brazil; Laubertia 3 Neoendemic spp. native to Belize (endemic sp.), Colombia, Venezuela, N Brazil (endemic sp.), Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia; Macropharynx 15 neoendemic spp. of Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama,  Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Brazil, and N Argentina; Malouetia ~20 spp. native CAM (exc. El Salvador), Windward Is, Colombia, Venezuela, French Guiana, Suriname, Guyana, Brazil (exc. C Brazil), Peru, and Bolivia, and intro to Cuba; Mandevilla ~165 mostly Neoendemic spp. native to CAM, Cuba, Jamaica, Trinidad-Tobago, and tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc. N Chile); Mesechites 8 neoendemic (1 also in Mexico) spp. native to CAM, Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, Trinidad-Tobago, and tropical SAM S to N Argentina (excluding Uruguay and N Chile), inc. 5 endemics of Cuba (2), Hispaniola, Colombia, and Peru; Neobracea 8 narrow endemics of Cuba (7) and Cuba + the Bahamas (1); Nerium monospecific sp. intro to CAM and S Brazil; Odontadenia 23 neoendemic spp. native to CAM (exc. El Salvador), Hispaniola, Colombia, N+E+C Brazil, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Trinidad-Tobago, and intro to Windward Is.; Pentalinon 2 Mexico, CAM & Caribbean endemic spp. native to the Bahamas, Turks & Caicos, Greater Antilles, SW Caribbean, Leeward & Windward Is., Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua; Pinochia 4 Mexico & N neoendemic spp. native to Guatemala, Belize, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, and Greater Antilles (exc. Cayman Is.), including 2 endemic to Greater Antilles; Prestonia 63 Mexico & neoendemic spp. native to CAM, tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc. N Chile), Leeward & Windward Is, and Trinidad-Tobago; Rhabdadenia 3 S NAM & neoendemic spp. native to CAM, Bahamas, Greater Antilles, Leeward & Windward Is., Trinidad-Tobago, and tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc. N Chile); Rhodocalyx 2 SAM endemic spp. of Peru, Bolivia, C+E+S Brazil, Paraguay, and N Argentina; Salpinctes monospecific endemic of S Colombia; Stipecoma monospecific SAM endemic of Bolivia and C+E Brazil; Strophanthus 1 sp. intro to Trinidad-Tobago; Temnadenia 2 spp. endemic genera of Brazil (exc. N); Thenardia 1 S Mexico + Honduras endemic sp. native Honduras; Tintinnabularia 2 Mesoamérica endemic spp. native to Guatemala, and Honduras (1 endemic).

Asclepiadoideaein the Neotropics: Anechites monospecific N neoendemic of Hoduras S to Colombia, Venezuala, Ecuador, and Peru, plus the Greater Antilles; Anemotrochus 3 Caribbean endemic spp. native to Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Cuba, Hispaniola, and Jamaica; Araujia 13 former S SAM endemic spp. native Bolivia, C+SE+S Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Argentina, and intro in C Chile and elsewhere; Asclepias 12 spp. native to CAM, Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Antilles (exc. Aruba), Trinidad-Tobago, Galapagos, and most of SAM excclduing Chile and intro in N Chile; Barjonia 7 SAM endemic spp. of Brazil, Suriname, and Bolivia; Blepharodon 4 SAM endemic spp. native Bolivia, C+S+SE Brazil, NE Argentina, and Paraguay; Calotropis 2 spp. intro to Bahamas, Turks and Caicos, Antilles, Trinidad-Tobago, Colombia, Venezuela, N+C+E Brazil, Paraguay, and Bolivia; Cristobalia 2 SAM spp. of Bolivia, Uruguay, N Argentina, and S Brazil; Cynanchum ~15 spp. native in CAM, Cuba, Jamaica, tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc. N Chile); Diplolepis 9 S SAM endemic spp. native to N+C CHile, NW Argentina, including 4 narrow endemics of Chile, rest in Patagonia; Ditassa 114 SAM endemic spp. of Colombia S to N Argentina, except N Chile and Paraguay; Fischeria 17 Neoendemic spp. native from S Mexico S through CAM (exc. El Salvador), Cuba, Jamaica, Trinidad-Tobago, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and NE Argentina; Funastrum 12+ former Americas endemic spp. native to the Antilles (exc. Aruba, Leewards, Netherlands Antilles), Trinidad-Tobago, CAM, and tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc. N Chile), including 5 narrow endemics of Guatemala, Bolivia, Colombia, SE Brazil, and Galapagos, with 1 sp. now introduced to India; Gomphocarpus 1 sp. intro to CAM (exc. Belize), Cuba, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Leeward Is, Colombia, Venezuela, Suriname, Brazil, Uruguay, NE Argentina, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia; Gonolobus ~100 spp. native to Greater Antilles (exc. Cayman Is.), Leeward & Windward Is., CAM, and tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc. N Chile, Suriname, French Guiana); Gyrostelma monospecific endemic of C+SE Brazil; Hemipogon 8 SAM endemic spp. of Peru, Brazil, Bolivia, and Paraguay; Hoya 1 sp. intro to Cuba, Trinidad-Tobago, Puerto Rico, and Leeward Is.; Hypolobus monospecific endemic of NE Brazil; Ibatia 36 Neoendemic spp. of Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Lesser Antilles, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Brazil, Paraguay, Ecuador, Bolivia, and N Argentina; Jobinia 25 Neoendemic spp. native to Guatemala, Honduras, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, C+S+E Brazil, N Argentina, and Uruguay; Lachnostoma 16 N SAM endemic spp. of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela; Macroscepis 19 Mexico & neoendemic spp. native to CAM (exc. Belize), Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, N Argentina, and Brazil; Matelea ~140 spp. native to CAM, Bahamas, Greater Antilles (exc. Cayman Is.), Leeward & Windward Is., Trinidad-Tobago, and tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc. N Chile); Metastelma ~85-90 spp. native to the Bahamas, Turks and Caicos, Antilles, CAM, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, N+E+S Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, and N Argentina; Minaria 22 SAM endemic spp. of Brazil, Bolivia, and NE Argentina; Monsanima 2 narrow endemic spp. of E Brazil; Nautonia monospecific E SAM endemic of C+SE+S Brazil, Paraguay, and NE Argentina; Nephradenia 5 N SAM endemic spp. of Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, N+E+C Brazil, and Bolivia; Orthosia ~48 neoendemic spp. native to CAM (exc. Belize), Colombia, Venezuela, E+S Brazil, Uruguay, N Argentina, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Bahamas, and the Greater Antilles (exc. Cayman Is); Oxypetalum 139 mostly neoendemic spp. of Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama, Greater Antilles (exc. Cayman Is), Leeward Is, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, and N Argentina; Pentacyphus 3 N SAM endemic spp. of high Andean Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, including 1 narrow endemic of Caldas, Colombia; Peplonia 9 SAM endemic spp. of Peru, Bolivia, E+C+S Brazil, and Paraguay; Petalostelma 7 SAM endemic spp. of Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, and N Argentina; Pherotrichis 1 sp. native to Guatemala; Philibertia 41 W+S SAM endemic spp. of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, N+C Chile, and Argentina; Pseudolachnostoma 12 neoendemic spp. of Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela, N Brazil, and Trinidad-Tobago; Rhytidostemma 8 neoendemic spp. of Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, C+N Brazil, Ecuador, and Peru; Rojasia monospecific SAM endemic of Bolivia, Paraguay, S Brazil, and NE Argentina; Ruehssia ~120+ spp. Mexico & neoendemic spp. native to CAM, much of the Antilles, and tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc. N Chile); Schubertia 6? SAM endemic spp. of Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Brazil, and N Argentina; Scyphostelma 39 neoendemic spp. of Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia; Stephanotis 1 sp. intro to Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Leeward Is, and Trinidad-Tobago; Tassadia 31 neoendemic spp. native to S Mexico, Cuba, Trinidad-Tobago, Belize, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, and tropical SAM S to Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, and S Brazil; Topea 2 narrow endemic spp. of WC Brazil, Paraguay, and NE Argentina; Tweedia 6 S SAM endemic spp. of Bolivia, N+C Chile, Argentina, and Paraguay, spp. are mostly narrow endemics; Tylodontia 4 narrow endemic spp. of Cuba.  

Periplocoideae in the Neotropics: Cryptostegia 2 spp. intro to CAM (exc. Guatemala, Belize), the Bahamas, Antilles, Trinidad-Tobago, Colombia, Venezuela, and N+NE+C Brazil.

Rauvolfioideae in the Neotropics: Allamanda 15 spp. of former neoendemic genera native to tropical SAM S to Bolivia, NE Argentina, and S Brazil, excluding Ecuador and Paraguay and intro to Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, Trinidad-Tobago, and Galapagos; Alstonia 1 sp. native to CAM (exc. Belize) and intro in Trinidad-Tobago; Ambelania 3 SAM endemic spp. of Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, N+NE Brazil, French Guiana, Guyana, and Suriname; Anechites monospecific N neoendemic of Honduras S to Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Peru, and the Greater Antilles (exc. Cayman Is.); Aspidosperma ~78 neoendemic spp. native from S Mexico S through CAM and tropical SAM S to N Argentina (except N Chile), Hispaniola, Trinidad-Tobago, and Venezuelan Antilles; Cameraria 7 spp. native to Belize, Guatemala, Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, and the Greater Antilles, including 6 single-island endemics of Cuba (4), Hispaniola, and Dominican Republic; Carissa 1 sp. intro to Honduras, Nicaragua, Bahamas, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Leeward & Windward Is, and Trinidad-Tobago; Catharanthus 1 sp. intro to CAM, Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Antilles (exc. Cayman Is., Venezuelan Antilles), SW Caribbean, the Galapagos, and French Guiana; Cerbera 1 sp. intro to Trinidad-Tobago; Chamaeclitandra monospecific African sp. intro to Trinidad-Tobago; Condylocarpon 7 Neoendemic spp. of Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, NE Argentina, and Trinidad-Tobago; Couma 5 neoendemic spp. of Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Suriname, Guyana, French Guiana, N+NE Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia; Geissospermum 5 SAM endemic spp. of Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, N+E Brazil, Peru, and Bolivia; Hancornia monospecific SAM endemic of Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Peru; Haplophyton 2 S NAM & N CAM endemic spp. native to Guatemala and intro in Cuba; Himatanthus 9 neoendemic spp. of Panama and tropical SAM S to Peru, Bolivia, C+SE Brazil; Kopsia 1 sp. intro to Trinidad-Tobago; Lacmellea 24 neoendemic spp. native to CAM (exc. El Salvador), and tropical SAM S. to Peru, Bolivia, and C+E Brazil; Landolphia 1 sp. intro to Trinidad-Tobago; Laxoplumeria 5 Neoendemic spp. of Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, N+C+SE Brazil, and French Guiana; Macoubea 3 neoendemic spp. of Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, and N+NE Brazil; Microplumeria monospecific N SAM endemic of Colombia, Venezuela, and N Brazil; Molongum 3 N SAM endemic spp. of Colombia, Venezuela, and N Brazil; Mortoniella monospecific CAM endemic of Belize, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica; Mucoa 2 N SAM endemic spp. of Colombia, Venezuela, N Brazil, and Peru; Neocouma 2 N SAM endemic spp. of Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, and N Brazil; Pacouria 3 N SAM endemic spp. of Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, N+SE Brazil, Bolivia, and Peru; Parahancornia 7 NW SAM endemic spp. of Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, N Brazil, Peru, and Bolivia; Plumeria 18 former Americas endemic spp. native to CAM, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Antilles (exc. Aruba, Netherlands Antilles), and SW Caribbean, and now intro to Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Netherlands Antilles, and Trinidad-Tobago; Rauvolfia ~25 spp. native to CAM, Antilles (exc. Netherlands Antilles), tropical SAM S to N Argentina (exc. Uruguay, N Chile); Rhigospira monospecific N SAM endemic sp. of Colombia, Venezuela, N Brazil, and Peru; Skytanthus 3 narrow SAM endemic spp. of E Brazil (2), N+C Chile (1); Spongiosperma 6 N SAM endemic spp. of Colombia, Venezuela, and N+NE Brazil; Strempeliopsis 2 single island endemic spp. of Cuba (1) and W Jamaica (1); Tabernaemontana ~45 spp. native to the Antilles (exc Aruba, Netherlands Antilles), SW Caribbean, tropical SAM S to Peru, Bolivia, and NE Argentina; Thevetia 3 Mexico & neoendemic spp. native to CAM, Cuba, Colombia, Venezuela, N & C Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, and NE Argentina; Vallesia 6 Americas endemic spp. native to Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Costa Rica, Colombia, Venezuela, N Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, and N Argentina, including 2 narrow endemics of Galapagos and Venezuela; Vinca 2 spp. intro to Guatemala, Costa Rica, Colombia, Venezuela, Bolivia, C Chile, and Uruguay.    

Patagonia Apocynaceae Genera Include:

Apocynoideae: Elytropus monospecific endemic C+S Chile, and S Argentina. Asclepiadoideae: Araujia 1? sp native to S Argentina; Asclepias 1 sp. native to S Argentina; Diplolepis 10 S SAM endemic spp. native to SC+S Chile and S Argentina, including 5 narrow endemics; Philibertia 1 SAM endemic sp. native to C Chile and S Argentina; Tweedia 2 S SAM endemic spp. native to C Chile and S Argentina. 

Additional Information and References

  • Visit Lyrae’s Dictionary of Botanical Terms to learn the terminology of botanists. Note that if you hover over most of the words in the articles, you can also get definitions from them there.
  • Willis, Lyrae (Unpublished). Plant Families of North America. This is where all of the family descriptions come from. Below should be most of my references for this, as well as my own personal observations.
  • Canadensys: Acadia University, Université de Montréal Biodiversity Centre, University of Toronto Mississauga, University of British Columbia. http://data.canadensys.net/explorer (accessed 2020 – current)
  • Delta: Watson, L., and Dallwitz, M.J. (1992+). The Families of Flowering Plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval. Version: 2nd May 2020. delta-intkey.com. Accessed spring through fall of 2020.
  • GBIF.org (2020), GBIF Home Page. Available from: https://www.gbif.org
  • Flora of North America (1993+). https://floranorthamerica.org/Main_Page.
  • Naturalista: CONABIO http://www.naturalista.mx (Accessed 2020–current).
  • Neotropikey: Milliken, W., Klitgård, B., & Baracat, A. eds. (2009+). Neotropikey: Interactive key and information resources for flowering plants of the Neotropics. www.kew.org/neotropikey.com (accessed 2020 – current).
  • Patagonia Wildflowers: Wildflower Identification Site. https://patagoniawildflowers.org/ Accessed throughout the fall of 2020.
  • POWO (2019). Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet: http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/
  • Stevens, P. F. (2001 onwards). Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 14, July 2017 [more or less continuously updated since]. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/
  • USDA, NRCS. 2020. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 2 June 2020). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC, USA; accessed throughout the fall of 2020.
  • WFO (2022): World Flora Online. Published on the Internet: http://www.worldfloraonline.org. Accessed Spring 2022 – current.

My Current Plant Family Education Fundraiser

I am currently seeking funding to expand my website and SEO capabilities as I keep adding new families, and I am also looking to invest in a new macro lens, as I will soon be adding floral dissections to the families as they become available to me. You can donate to help support native plant education using the GoFundMe link, also at the bottom of the page.

Copyright Information

The information and the photos on this site are free to use for educational purposes, with proper attribution. For other uses, please contact me first.

You can cite this site as follows: Willis, Lyrae (2020+). Lyrae’s Nature Blog – Plant Families of North America. https://lyraenatureblog.com/. Accessed [Enter Date].

9 Oct, 2022

28 Sep, 2022

How to Identify the Aristolochiaceae or Birthwort Family

Learn how to identify the Aristolochiaceae family, like this Aristolochia taliscana flower showing its unusual hairs used to temporarily trap flies for pollination
Aristolochia taliscana flower showing unusual hairs used to temporarily trap flies for pollination.
Page Last Updated May 5, 2026.

Introduction to the Aristolochiaceae Family

One important consideration when learning to identify the Aristolochiaceae family is that the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (IV) recently combined two very small families into the Aristolochiaceae so it would not be paraphyletic. Since these new subfamilies are themselves very unique and different morphologically from the traditional Aristolochiaceae (which only included Asaroideae and Aristolochioideae), I am describing the subfamilies separately from the traditional Aristolochiaceae, which will be described in detail as one (differences between these two subfamilies can still be found in the taxonomy section below).

The Aristolochiaceae are a family with bizarre-looking flowers, and each genus has its own unique and often very bizarre morphology. Since I always believe the weirder the better, the first time I saw an Asarum and an Aristolochia, I was instantly in love with their unique beauty.

Common Botanical Description

If you’re new to plant morphology, this guide is a perfect beginner’s description to help you learn how to identify the Aristolochiaceae family, with no need to know any scientific jargon. Below this are morphology photos and pictures of some species found in North America to further help you with identification. But for researchers or those wanting to learn a more in-depth version, check out the Scientific Botanical Description below the images in addition to genus-level distribution data.

Leaves and Stems: These are mostly woody vines, shrubs, or herbs with simple (never compound) leaves on stalks (petioles) that are usually arranged in a spiral pattern and are often heart-shaped (cordate). Most have aromatic leaves that may have gland dots. The Hydnoroideae are leafless parasitic herbs that live almost entirely below the soil.

Flowers: The flowers are unusual and highly characteristic of the family, known for their often S-shaped floral tubes. They are often large and showy and often emit strong foul odors. They also often have unique and specialized hairs designed to trap flies. They are held there until the hairs wither, releasing them to escape and pollinate other flowers.

Reproductive Features: The bisexual flowers contain both male (stamens) and female (ovary, stigma, style) parts. There are typically 6-36 stamens, which are often fused to the female parts into a specialized central column called a gynostegium.

Fruits: Fruits are mostly dry capsules that split open when ripe to release their seeds. Rarely, they may be a fleshy berry or a nut.

Uses of the Aristolochiaceae Family 

A few Aristolochia and Asarum species are routinely cultivated as ornamentals. Aristolochia and some Asarum contain a toxin known to be carcinogenic to humans and rats, so they are never ingested in any way. However, Pipevine Swallowtail butterflies are immune to the toxin and lay their eggs on Aristolochia spp, and their caterpillars eat the leaves when they hatch. The fruits of Hydnora, on the other hand, have edible, fragrant pulp, which attracts animals, including porcupines, monkeys, jackals, rhinoceros, and armadillos, and are sometimes eaten by humans.

Morphology of Aristolochiaceae in North America

Learn how to identify the Aristolochiaceae, or Birthwort Family, with morphology photos.

Species of Aristolochiaceae I have Covered So Far

Aristolochioideae Subfamily

Aristolochia taliscana flower, bud, and heart-shaped leaf

Aristolochia taliscana – Mexican Birthwort

This is a lush medium green vine with heart-shaped (cordate) leaves with a deep cleft and a rounded to notched tip. Flowers are solitary in leaf axils with an S-shaped petal-like calyx in burgundy, purple, or brown, usually with yellow markings. The limb is covered with conspicuous purple hairs that trap pollinating insects. Native to western Mexico.

Aristolochia watsonii flower and arrow-shaped leaf with bizarre flowers charafcteristic of the Aristolochiaceae

Aristolochia watsonii – Watson’s Dutchman’s Pipe

This one has very deeply arrow-shaped (sagittate) green leaves with purple markings. The calyx tube is straight or S-shaped, and the limb has maroon spots and no elaborate hairs. It is native to the southwestern USA and northwestern Mexico.

Asaroideae Subfamily

Note that the genus Hexastylis was recently combined with Asarum based on phylogenetic research, though not all sources have accepted this change. Since it is still not widely accepted, and their floral morphology is different, I have kept it separate for now.

Asarum caudatum western wild ginger showing heart-shaped leaves and bizarre flowers characteristic of the Aristolochiaceae

Asarum caudatum – Western Wild Ginger

This long favorite of mine has classic heart-shaped leaves with very long stalks from the ground (no plant stem). Flowers are solitary and burgundy or greenish-yellow, with a 3-part calyx with very long lobes that taper to a fine point. It is native to the Pacific Northwest, from BC, Canada, south to California, and east to Idaho and Montana, USA.

Hexastylis arifolia Little Brown Jug showing heart-shaped leaves and bizarre little brown jug flowers characteristic of the Aristolochiaceae

Hexastylis arifolia Little Brown Jug

This low herbaceous perennial has triangular, arrow-shaped, heart-shaped, or diamond-shaped leaves that are often variegated (this one shows slight variegation). Flowers are jug-shaped (urceolate) and brown, purple, or reddish with three lobes that may or may not be flared (visible at the base of the leaf stalk). Native to the southeastern USA.

Hexastylis shuttleworthii showing heart-shaped leaves characteristic of the Aristolochiaceae

Hexastylis shuttleworthii – Shuttleworth Ginger

This one has round to heart-shaped & usually variegated leaves. Its flowers are similar to H. arifolia but much larger. It’s a narrow endemic of the southern Appalachians & the surrounding area, eastern USA.

Scientific Botanical Description of the Aristolochiaceae

Note that, with the addition of the two very unique subfamilies, I have kept my original description of Aristolochiaceae (=Aristolochioideae + Asaroideae) separate from the Hydnoroideae and the Lactoridoideae to make it easier to describe the species in larger groups. The Lactoridoideae is a rare endemic monospecific subfamily not encountered in North America, but I still include it since it is in the neotropical zone.

Habit & Leaf Form of Aristolochiaceae

Habit & Leaf Form of Traditional Aristolochiaceae

Shrubs, lianas, or herbs, but mostly woody vines bearing essential oils. Plants are green and photosynthesize. They are always perennial and do not have a conspicuous aggregation of leaves. They are usually climbing stem twiners, but sometimes they are self-supporting. Plants are mesophytic. Leaves are alternate, spiral, flat, and either herbaceous or herbaceous and membranous. They are petiolate, sheathing to non-sheathing, simple, aromatic, and may be gland-dotted, pellucid, or punctate. Lamina is usually entire or sometimes dissected, palmatifid, or trilobed and is often cordate. They are either palmately or pinnately veined and are cross-venulate. Leaves are exstipulate, but sometimes the first 1–2 leaves of suppressed axillary branches simulate stipules.  

Habit & Leaf Form of Hydnoroideae

Ectoparasitic herbs with a very peculiar vegetative form that lacks leaves and is more or less fungoid in habit. The vegetative component consists of a coarse, rhizome-like pilot root with many slender, unbranched haustorial roots that parasitize the roots of host plants. Plants are succulent and not green. 

Habit & Leaf Form of Lactoridoideae

Shrubs bearing essential oils with small, simple, alternate, distichous, petiolate, and gland-dotted leaves. The lamina is entire, obovate, emarginate, and pinnately veined

Flowers of Aristolochiaceae

Flowers of Traditional Aristolochiaceae

Plants are hermaphrodites. Pollination is entomophilous by Diptera, and the mechanism is conspicuously specialized via an elaborate system for trapping flies within the perianth tube using articulated hairs that end up withering to release the flies so they can visit another flower. Flowers can be solitary or aggregated in cymes, racemes, or spikes, and they are often axillary but sometimes terminal. Flowers are very unusual in shape and can be small, medium, or large. They are often malodorous and smelling of carrion but may also be odorless. They are actinomorphic to zygomorphic and tricyclic to pentacyclic.

The perianth has 3 or 6 parts that are joined in one whorl or two (then isomerous), and they either have a distinct calyx and corolla or are petaline. Only in Saruma is the corolla whorl conspicuous and well developed. The calyx has three parts in one whorl: connate, entire or blunt-lobed, and campanulate or tubular, with the tube often S-shaped. The calyx is either bilabiate, unequal, or regular; it can be persistent or not, and valvate or valvate–induplicate. The corolla, when present, has three parts in one whorl but, otherwise, is usually reduced or absent.

Flowers of Hydnoroideae

Plants are hermaphrodites, and pollination is via beetles. Flowers are solitary and arise endogenously from the pilot roots on short stalks that barely emerge above the ground, often with the lower parts remaining beneath the soil. They are medium to large in size, malodorous, regular, and either tricyclic or tetracyclic. A short free hypanthium is present. The perianth is sepaline or petaline or may be interpreted as tepals. It has 3–4(5) parts joined in one whorl. The lobes are valvate, often fleshy, often have retrorse bristles, and are white, red, pink, or brown in color. 

Flowers of Lactoridoideae

Plants are polygamodioecious with axillary flowers that are solitary or aggregated in cymes. Flowers are small, 3-merous, and tetracyclic. There is no free hypanthium or hypogynous disk. The perianth has three parts in one whorl and is sepaline.

Androecium of Aristolochiaceae

Androecium of Traditional Aristolochiaceae

The androecium has 4–36 members in one or two whorls that are free of the perianth but may be free of or united with the gynoecium or coherent via the gynostemium and one adelphous. All members are fertile, usually with 6 stamens, but there may be 4–36. Stamens are isomerous with the perianth to polystemonous and they may have filaments or sessile anthers. Anthers are cohering or separate from one another, basifixed or adnate, non-versatile, and dehiscing via longitudinal slits. They are extrorse or both extrorse and introrse only in Heterotropa. Anthers are sometimes appendaged apically with the expanded connective that assumes stigmatic functions associated with the gynostemium, but they may also be unappendaged.

Androecium of Hydnoroideae

The androecium has 3–10 members that are free of the perianth but inserted on the hypanthium. They are one whorled, coherent, and united into an ovoid synandrium of a thick annulus in Hydnora. The androecium is either made of fertile stamens or, in Prosopanche, includes staminodes. In Prosopanche 3–4(5), small fleshy staminodes alternate with the stamens. There are 3–4(5) stamens that are oppositisepalous and isomerous with the perianth. They either have sessile anthers in Hydnora or are filantherous in Prosopanche, where the very short filaments arise from the hypanthium, and the anthers are connate to form a dome or cap with a small central opening. Anthers may be separate from one another or coherent in Prosopanche. They are dehiscing via longitudinal slits or transversely and are extrorse.

Androecium of Lactoridoideae

There are 6 androecial members that are free of the perianth and one another and are two-whorled. The androecium is either exclusively all fertile stamens or sometimes includes staminodes. When present, three non-petaloid staminodes are internal to the fertile stamens. There are 6(3) stamens that are diplostemonous, narrowly laminar, and short. Anthers are adnate, non-versatile, and dehiscing via longitudinal slits. They are extrorse, bilocular, and almost as long as the blade. Anthers have short terminal appendages. 

Gynoecium of Aristolochiaceae

Gynoecium of Traditional Aristolochiaceae

The gynoecium has 4–6 carpels, and the pistil has 1 or 4–6 cells. It is synstylovarious, syncarpous, or in Hexastylis, it is synovarious. The gynoecium is usually inferior but sometimes may be partly inferior. The ovary is either 4–6 or 1 locular (where the septa sometimes incompletely intruded). An epigynous disk is either present or absent. There are 1 or 4–6 free or partially joined terminal styles. Placentation when unilocular is parietal, and when plurilocular it is axile. There are 50-100 ovules in a single cavity if unilocular and 20-50 when plurilocular. Ovules possess a funicle, are pendulous or horizontal, and are anatropous.

Gynoecium of Hydnoroideae

The gynoecium is 3(4) carpelled and is either partly or completely buried in the soil. The pistil is one-celled. The gynoecium is synstylovarious to syncarpous and inferior. The ovary is one locular but becomes occluded by the ingrowth of the accrescent placentas. There are 1 or 3 sessile and commissural (Prosopanche) stigmas that are mostly 3-lobed in Hydnora. Placentation is parietal (Prosopanche) or apical (Hydnora). There are 50-200 undifferentiated ovules that are orthotropous and tenuinucellate.

Gynoecium of Lactoridoideae

The gynoecium is three-carpelled and isomerous with the perianth. The pistil is basally three-celled. It is superior and semicarpous with the carpels in a single whorl and more or less basally connate. The carpel is shortly stylate with a decurrent stigma and 6 (4–8) ovules. Placentation is marginal, and the placenta is intruded. The ovary is three locular basally. Ovules have long funicles, are biseriate, anatropous, bitegmic, and weakly crassinucellate.

Fruit of Aristolochiaceae

Fruit of Traditional Aristolochiaceae

The fruit is usually non-fleshy, but sometimes it has a fleshy endocarp. Usually, they are dehiscent septicidal, valvular (usually basally but only rarely at the top), or an irregularly splitting capsule. Rarely are they an indehiscent berry or a nut, or in Saruma, they are a schizocarp with 4-6 mericarps of follicles. Seeds are endospermic, ruminate or not, and are oily. The embryo is rudimentary to weakly differentiated at the time of seed release.

Fruit of Hydnoroideae

The fruit is fleshy inside but with a more or less woody pericarp. It is a dehiscent circumscissile capsule (Prosopanche) or an indehiscent capsule or berry. Fruits contain 500–2000 tiny seeds that are endospermic.

Fruit of Lactoridoideae

The fruit is a non-fleshy aggregate with the fruiting carpels coalescing into a secondary syncarp, a dehiscent follicle. Seeds are endospermic and oily.

Taxonomy of Aristolochiaceae

The Aristolochiaceae family has 682 species in 7-9 genera of the Piperales order in the Magnoliids clade of basal angiosperms. This clade is not part of either the monocots or the dicots, which is why it is considered a basal angiosperm since it diverged early on.

APG IV has combined the former Hydnoraceae and Lactoridaceae because their exclusion would make the Aristolochiaceae paraphyletic.

  1. Aristolochioideae – Plants are mostly lianas or occasionally shrubs or herbs. Inflorescences are usually axillary, and the flowers or at least the floral buds, are zygomorphic. The gynoecium has 4-6(2-3) carpels that are constricted apically. Stigmas are wet or dry and are commissural in Aristolochia. Fruits are dehiscent and open laterally, acropetally or basipetally septicidal, or rarely adaxially if a schizocarp or berry. Seeds are winged.
  2. Asaroideae – Plants are rhizomatous perennial herbs. Flowers are solitary and terminal, the gynoecium is inferior to half inferior, and the stigma has multicellular papillae. The fruit of the Asarum is an irregularly dehiscent capsule and a follicular schizocarp in Saruma. 
  3. Hydnoroideae – Unusual parasitic herbs that resemble fungi and lack leaves entirely, living mostly underground with only fleshy, foul-smelling flowers emerging above the soil.
  4. Lactoris or Lactoridoideae – a monospecific subfamily with a narrow endemic shrub with very small flowers and dry fruits that split into pod-like segments.

Genera:

Aristolochioideae: Aristolochia (569), Thottea (46).

Asaroideae: Asarum (138), Saruma (1).

Hydnoroideae: Hydnora (10), Prosopanche (7).

Lactoridoideae: Lactoris monospecific (Lactoris fernandeziana).

Key Differences From Similar Families

The unique flowers of most members of the Aristolochiaceae make them hard to confuse with other families. The subfamilies Aristolochioideae and Asaroideae are so unique they are rarely confused, and Lactoroideae is a rare microendemic from Juan Fernández Island. The Hydnoroideae, on the other hand, despite their uniqueness, do have some superficially similar-looking families. However, the other families all contain features lacking in Hydnoraceae. They include the Apodanthaceae with its very small unisexual flowers; the Balanophoraceae with its fungus-like inflorescence with numerous small flowers; the Cytinaceae with its spicate inflorescence; the Mitrastemonaceae with its whorl of opposite decussate leaves and a superior ovary; and the Orobanchaceae with its zygomorphic flowers on racemes or spikes.   

Distribution of Aristolochiaceae

The Aristolochiaceae family is widespread in warm temperate to tropical areas around the world except in Australasia, and they are not present in arctic areas. The Lactoridoideae is a rare microendemic genus confined to Juan Fernández Island off the coast of Chile.

Distribution of Aristolochiaceae in the Americas

Canadian Genera Include:

Aristolochioideae: Aristolochia 2 spp. including 1 native to ON and 1 intro (sometimes referred to as Isotrema) to ON and QC. Asaroideae: Asarum 2 spp. native to BC, MB, ON, QB, and NB.

USA Genera Include:

Aristolochioideae: Aristolochia 16 spp., mostly native, some intro to most of the USA except WA, OR, NV, UT, ID, MT, WY, CO, ND, SD, NE, MN, and VT. Asaroideae: Asarum (inc. Hexastylis) 17 spp. native in most of the USA except NV, AZ, UT, WY, CO, NM, NE, and TX.

Mexico Genera Include:

Aristolochioideae: Aristolochia 47 spp. native throughout all of Mexico, including the Mexican Pacific Islands. Asaroideae: Asarum 1 sp. native Yuc.

Neotropical Genera Include:

Aristolochioideae: Aristolochia ~200 spp. native throughout Mexico, CAM, Bermuda, the Bahamas, Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, the Leeward & Windward Is., and tropical SAM S to Santiago, C Chile, and N Argentina, and it is intro in the Venezuelan Antilles and Galapagos. Hydnoroideae: Prosopanche 7 neoendemic spp. native to Costa Rica, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, Paraguay, NE & S Brazil. Lactoridoideae: Lactoris monospecific endemic of Juan Fernandez Island off the coast of Chile. 

Patagonia Genera Include:

Hydnoroideae: Prosopanche 1 sp. native to S. Argentina.

Additional Information and References

  • Visit Lyrae’s Dictionary of Botanical Terms to learn the terminology of botanists. Note that if you hover over most of the words in the articles, you can also get definitions from them there.
  • Willis, Lyrae (Unpublished). Plant Families of North America. This is where all of the family descriptions come from. Below should be most of my references for this, as well as my own personal observations.
  • Canadensys: Acadia University, Université de Montréal Biodiversity Centre, University of Toronto Mississauga, University of British Columbia. http://data.canadensys.net/explorer (accessed 2020 – current)
  • Flora of North America. (1993+). https://floranorthamerica.org/Main_Page
  • Delta: Watson, L., and Dallwitz, M.J. (1992+). The Families of Flowering Plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval. Version: 2nd May 2020. delta-intkey.com. Accessed spring through fall of 2020.
  • GBIF.org (2020), GBIF Home Page. Available from: https://www.gbif.org
  • Naturalista: CONABIO http://www.naturalista.mx Accessed 2020–current.
  • Neotropikey: Milliken, W., Klitgård, B., & Baracat, A. eds. (2009 onwards). Neotropikey: Interactive key and information resources for flowering plants of the Neotropics. www.kew.org/neotropikey.com (accessed 2020 – current).
  • Patagonia Wildflowers: Wildflower Identification Site. https://patagoniawildflowers.org/ Accessed throughout the fall of 2020.
  • POWO (2019). Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet: http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/
  • Stevens, P. F. (2001+). Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 14, July 2017 [more or less continuously updated since]. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/
  • USDA, NRCS. 2020. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 2 June 2020). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC, USA; accessed throughout fall of 2020.
  • WFO (2022): World Flora Online. Published on the Internet: http://www.worldfloraonline.org. Accessed Spring 2022 – current

My Current Plant Family Education Fundraiser

I am currently seeking funding to expand my website and SEO capabilities as I keep adding new families, and I am also looking to invest in a new macro lens, as I will soon be adding floral dissections to the families as they become available to me. You can donate to help support native plant education using the GoFundMe link, also at the bottom of the page.

Copyright Information

The information and the photos on this site are free to use for educational purposes, with proper attribution. For other uses, please contact me first.

You can cite this site as follows: Willis, Lyrae (2020+). Lyrae’s Nature Blog – Plant Families of North America. https://lyraenatureblog.com/. Accessed [Enter Date].

28 Sep, 2022