Introduction to the Boraginaceae Family

The Boraginaceae family has undergone major revisions over the years, including several small families and then more recently, having them removed. This description teaches how to identify the Boraginaceae based on the currently accepted, much narrower definition of the family that excludes Heliotropiaceae, Hydrophyllaceae, and others, which I will all cover separately.

What I love about this family is their often instantly blue-to-violet flowers almost always arranged in unique clusters called “scorpioid cymes.” They are truly beautiful; I even love their coarse hairs that can cause rashes in some people, but to me, it just makes them even more beautiful. But I might be biased too, since I think all flowers are beautiful in their own way.

Common Botanical Description of the Boraginaceae Family

If you’re new to plant morphology, this common botanical description is a perfect beginner’s description for learning to identify the Boraginaceae family, with no need to know any scientific jargon not explained in the description. Below this section is additional information on uses and morphology photos to help you identify the family, followed by pictures of individual species found in North America. But for researchers or those wanting to learn a more in-depth version, refer to the Scientific Botanical Description below the images for highly detailed scientific descriptions, taxonomic information, and genus-level distribution data in North, Central, and South America.

Leaves and Stems of the Boraginaceae: Most members are herbaceous plants, with occasional woody shrubs, trees, or vines, often accompanied by characteristic coarse hairs that can cause skin reactions. The leaves vary in size but are always simple (not compound) and are usually arranged alternately along the stem; however, in rare cases, the lower leaves may be in opposite pairs. Leaves are usually thin to lance-shaped, and most have entire margins, but in rare cases they may be toothed. Another characteristic feature of the family is that the leaves never have small leaf-like appendages called stipules at their base, often seen in other families.

Flowers of the Boraginaceae: The flowers of this family are mostly bisexual, containing both male (stamens) and female (ovary, style, stigma) parts in the same flower. What is most characteristic of this and closely related families is the flowers in coiled clusters called “scorpioid cymes.” Boraginaceae flowers are usually regular, meaning it can be divided in half on multiple planes of symmetry, and contain usually 5 sepals that may be free or joined at the base into a tube and are often covered with hairs. They also have 5 petals that are usually blue or purple (but may be pink, yellow, or white) and often have a collection of scales in the throat.

Reproductive Features of the Boraginaceae: The stamens can vary, being free or joined, but there are always five fertile stamens (with pollen-producing anthers), and they are always attached in the throat of the flower. The ovary is deeply four-lobed, and there is a single style attached at its base.

Fruits of the Boraginaceae: The fruits are always non-fleshy nutlets or sometimes dry dehiscent fruits called schizocarps that split apart when mature.

Uses of Boraginaceae 

Many members of the family are used ornamentally for their lovely flowers, while others are used medicinally, and still others are used as a natural source of dye.

Common cultivated family members include forget-me-not (Myosotis), Symphytum, Borago, and more. Many species have been introduced as ornamental plants or weeds, e.g., the genera Anchusa, Borago, Cynoglossum, Echium, Myosotis, and Symphytum.

Morphology of Boraginaceae in North America

Some Boraginaceae Species Found in North America

Boraginoideae Subfamily

Anchusa officinalis—Common Alkanet

This beautiful introduced wildflower has long, lance-shaped leaves that become smaller on shorter petioles further up the stem. Most of the plant is covered in fine, stiff hairs, and it produces deep violet-blue flowers with five spreading, rounded lobes. It is native primarily to the Mediterranean region, but also to most of Europe and western Asia. It is now an occasional introduced weed in North America, like this one growing wild not far from human settlements in Peachland, British Columbia, Canada.

Buglossoides arvensis—Corn Gromwell

An annual herb up to 40 cm long with stems that branch from the base, producing terminal racemes of pale blue to white flowers with forward-facing hairs on the outside and narrowly lance-shaped leaves that typically have a central groove on the upper surface. Native throughout Eurasia and northern Africa but widely introduced in Canada and the United States, as well as southern South America. This one was found in a well-maintained park in Vernon, British Columbia, Canada.

Lithospermum ruderale—Wayside Gromwell

Unlike most members of the Boraginoideae subfamily, this perennial herb is native to North America, endemic to western North America from British Columbia east to Saskatchewan in Canada and from Washington State south to California and east to Montana south to Colorado in the United States. It also produces narrowly lance-shaped leaves with fine, coarse hairs and light yellow tubular flowers. It is common in dry soil with good drainage in sunny locations in its range. This one was in Princeton, British Columbia.

Cynoglossoideae Subfamily

Andersonglossum virginianum—Southern Wild Comfrey

This pretty wildflower has large comfrey-like leaves that give it one of its common names. The leaves are slightly hairy and tend to clasp the hairy stem at their base. It produces pale bluish flowers on erect, branching stems that often turn a violet color as they age. This is an uncommon endemic native of the eastern United States from Texas east to Florida and north to Vermont, where it normally grows in forested areas.

Cryptantha crassisepala—Thick-Sepaled Cryptanth

This very hairy annual herb only grows up to about 15 cm tall, with 2-6 cm long leaves and small white flowers with very thick and hairy sepals. However, examination of fruits is often needed for a positive ID. It is a southern North American endemic from California east to Kansas and Texas as well as throughout northern Mexico. It tends to grow in arid and semi-arid locations; this one was on a roadside in New Mexico.

Oreocarya aka Cryptantha flava—Yellow Cryptantha

Most sources still refer to Oreocarya as a separate genus, but authoritative sources like APG and USDA now consider it a synonym for Cryptantha, so we use both names here. This narrow endemic of Colorado, Wyoming, Arizona, Utah, and New Mexico in the United States is known for its cheerful yellow flowers and thinner but still very hairy sepals. This one was in the Wilson Arch area, Utah.

Oreocarya aka Cryptantha fulvocanescens—Gray Cat’s Eye

Another lovely Cryptantha endemic to the American Southwest, this time in Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico. It has white tubular flowers with conspicuous yellow appendages in their throats and the hairy sepals we are used to seeing in the genus. This one was found growing on a dry roadside outside of Cuba, New Mexico.

Myosotis arvsenis—Field Forget-Me-Not

An annual or short-lived perennial herb with stalkless, hairy leaves and pretty inflorescences of blue flowers with white to yellow throat appendages. The flowers are in typical scorpioid cymes, but they are best visualized while the flowers are still in bud as they elongate and straighten as they bloom. This species is originally native to northern Eurasia but is now widely introduced to northern North America. This was on the side of a logging road near Sechelt, British Columbia, Canada.

Myosotis macrosperma—Largeseed Forget-Me-Not

An annual herb with hairy, stalkless leaves with a prominent midrib and tiny white flowers in condensed cymes with hairy sepals and green bracts. This one is a North American native found in disturbed areas throughout the southeastern United States north into southern Ontario, Canada.

Lappula occidentalis—Western Stickseed

This hairy annual has stalked basal leaves that are mostly oblong with rounded tips and narrower, stalkless stem leaves with pointed tips. They are best known for their elongated inflorescences of tiny white to pale blue flowers, followed by fruits containing four nutlets, each with a row of slender prickles. It is native throughout western North America from Alaska south to northern Mexico and east to Manitoba, Canada, and Iowa, United States, with some disjunct populations in the eastern United States.

Scientific Botanical Description of the Boraginaceae

Learn to identify the Boraginaceae family based on the newer, more narrow definition of the family.

Habit & Leaf Form of the Boraginaceae Family

Most are annual or perennial herbaceous plants from taproots with occasional woody shrubs, trees, or self-supporting (usually) vines. They are often hispid or scabrid with coarse hairs that may contain SiO₂ or CaCO₃, which can cause adverse skin reactions in sensitive individuals. They may or may not have a basal aggregation of leaves. Helophytic, mesophytic, or xerophytic.

Leaves are minute to medium-sized, usually alternate or sometimes alternate and opposite below. They are simple, flat, herbaceous, petiolate to sessile, usually non-sheathing or sometimes sheathing in basal rosettes, not gland-dotted, and epulvinate. The lamina is entire, usually narrow, linear to lanceolate. Leaves lack stipules. Lamina margins are mostly entire, rarely crenate or dentate. Domatia may be present.

Flowers of the Boraginaceae Family

Plants are usually hermaphrodites or occasionally gynodioecious (Echium), with predominantly entomophilous pollination via Hymenoptera. Flowers are usually aggregated in coiled (scorpioid) cymes that may appear doubled in some species; coiled cymes typically elongate in fruit. Rarely are flowers solitary. Inflorescences are terminal or axillary.

Flowers bracteate or not; usually regular or irregular and somewhat zygomorphic (Echium and relatives); usually 5 merous, tetracyclic. Free hypanthium absent. Hypogynous disk present or absent. Perianth with distinct calyx and corolla: 10 (11–13); 2 whorled; isomerous (mostly) or anisomerous (sometimes in Plagiobothrys).

Calyx 5 (usually) or 5–8 (sometimes Plagiobothrys); 1 whorl; free or connate basally with lobes shorter to longer than the tube; degree of gamosepaly 0.1–0.5, often covered with trichomes. Calyx persistent; imbricate, open in bud or valvate (rarely).

Corolla 5; 1 whorled; often appendiculate with a corona of scales from the throat protecting the nectar; lobes shorter than to longer than the tube. Corolla imbricate or contorted; rotate, campanulate to hypocrateriform or tubular; unequal, regular, or often bilabiate in Echium. They are often blue or purple in color but may also be pink, white, or yellow.

Androecium of the Boraginaceae Family

There are 5 unbranched androecial members that are adnate midway down or in the throat of the corolla tube; all are equal or unequal, free or coherent, and 1-whorled. Stamens: 5; exclusively fertile; not didynamous or tetradynamous; isomerous with perianth, arranged opposite sepals; with filaments or sometimes appearing sessile; inserted or exserted. Filaments appendiculate or not. Anthers cohering, free, or connivent; dorsifixed to basifixed; dehiscing via longitudinal slits; introrse; tetrasporangiate; appendaged or unappendaged.

Gynoecium of the Boraginaceae Family

The gynoecium is usually 2-carpeled or 4–5 carpeled (some Trigonotis). Pistil 2- or 4-celled (usually via false septa) or 8-10-celled (via false septa in some Trigonotis). Gynoecium is syncarpous with a superior ovary. Ovary 2 locular (nearly always) but often appears 4 locular via false septa. Gynoecium median. Style 1 gynobasic from an often deeply 4-lobed ovary. Stigmas 1–2: when simple, often 2-lobed but may also be capitate or minute; nearly always dry type; papillate. Placentation is basal. Ovules 2 per locule (usually separating into 1-ovuled portions); horizontal to ascending; epitropous (micropyle directed upwards); with dorsal raphe.  

Fruit of the Boraginaceae Family

The fruits are primarily non-fleshy nutlets, dehiscent, indehiscent, or a schizocarp with 4 or 8–10 (sometimes Trigonotis) mericarps.

Taxonomy of Boraginaceae

There are 1,793 species in 94 genera in the Boraginales order of the core eudicots (dicots). This family recently underwent major revisions, including the removal of the Hydrophyllaceae, Heliotropiaceae, Cordiaceae, and Ehretiaceae. As a result, many genera have changed in the family; the list below is current, although the number of species in each may not be current, as this is always changing as new information is gathered.

There are 3 currently accepted subfamilies:

1. Boraginoideae is a large subfamily concentrated in the Mediterranean region, with some also in East Asia, Africa, and South America, but it is also introduced elsewhere. They are mostly perennial herbs, some annuals, and some shrubs; their flowers typically have a single line of symmetry and basal scales, the gynobase is flat, and the nutlets have a basal attachment scar.
2. Cynoglossoideae is the largest subfamily with a nearly cosmopolitan distribution. It is a group of mostly herbs (annual to perennial) with some shrubs, leaves with obvious secondary venation, bractless flowers, a broadly pyramidal to flat gynobase, and often compressed nutlets that are ventrally attached with a large triangular scar.
3. Echinochiloideae is a small subfamily with only 3 genera located in Mexico, south to northeastern Argentina, plus the Canary Islands, Africa, and east to western India. They are characterized by having densely hairy corolla throats and punctate stigmas (subterminal, sterile tips, bilobed or notched) with fruits that are laterally compressed nutlets.

Genera:

Boraginoideae: Aegonychon (3), Alkanna (65), Anchusa (37), Anchusella (??), Arnebia (40), Borago (5), Brunnera (3), Buglossoides (6), Cerinthe (6), Cynoglottis (2), Cystostemon (16), Echiostachys (3), Echium (68), Gastrocotyle (3), Glandora (8), Halacsya (1), Hormuzakia (??), Huynhia (??), Lithodora (4), Lithospermum (78), Lobostemon (28), Lycopsis (4), Maharanga (10), Mairetis (1), Megacaryon (??), Melanortocarya (1), Moltkia (6), Moltkiopsis (1), Moritzia (3), Neatostema (1), Nonea (46), Onosma (249), Paramoltkia (1), Pentaglottis (1), Phyllocara (??), Podonosma (3), Pontechium (1), Pulmonaria (18), Stenosolenium (1), Symphytum (27), Thaumatocaryon (3), Trachystemon (1).

Cynoglossoideae: Adelinia (1), Afrotysonia (3), Amsinckia (14), Ancistrocarya (1), Andersonglossum (3), Anoplocaryum (4), Antiotrema (1), Asperugo (1), Bothriospermum (6), Brachybotrys (1), Caccinia (5), Chionocharis (1), Craniospermum (7), Cryptantha (~180), Cynoglossum (~130), Dasynotus (1), Decalepidanthus (9), Eritrichium (78), Gyrocaryum (1), Hackelia (58), Harpagonella (2), Heterocaryum (1), Iberodes (5), Lappula (92), Lasiocaryum (3), Memoremea (1), Mertensia (51), Microcaryum (1), Microparacaryum (5), Microula (37), Mimophytum (10), Myosotidium (1), Myosotis (148), Nesocaryum (1), Nihon (5), Omphalodes (16), Oncaglossum (1), Oxysmyles (??), Paracaryopsis (??), Pectocarya (12), Plagiobothrys (65), Pseudoheterocaryum (4), Pseudolappula (1), Rochelia (22), Selkirkia (4), Solenanthus (27), Suchtelenia (1), Thyrocarpus (3), Trichodesma (36), Trigonotis (69).

Echinochiloideae: Antiphytum (13), Echiochilon (16), Ogastemma (1).

Key Differences From Similar Families

The Hydrophyllaceae had been included as a subfamily of Boraginaceae before, though it has recently been removed and made a separate family again. They have very similar-looking scorpioid inflorescences in similar blue-to-violet colors. However, the Hydrophyllaceae always have dry capsule fruits, while the Boraginaceae have nutlets. The ovaries and seeds also differ.

The Heliotropiaceae has also recently been split out of the family, and it too has scorpioid cymes, though not all members do. However, it can be distinguished by having fewer bristly hairs that are always eglandular, leaves that are usually conduplicate, an ovary that is still often deeply lobed but has a cone-shaped stigma, and fruits that are drupes with 4 stones or are dry schizocarps.

The Ehretiaceae is another recent split. It is a small family with only 7 genera of mostly shrubs and trees as opposed to mostly herbs, and while the Boraginaceae have a gynobasic style, most of this family (excluding Tiquilia) has a terminal style with a bifid stigma.

The Cordiaceae is another recent split, but these are also mostly trees and shrubs with characteristic 4-lobed stigmas and fleshy drupes as opposed to mostly herbs with 2-lobed stigmas and producing nutlets in the Boraginaceae.

Distribution of Boraginaceae

The Boraginaceae are a cosmopolitan family found around the tropics, warm and cool temperate, and even arctic climates, although they are predominantly found in warm temperate climates, with a strong Mediterranean concentration. In the Americas, the family is found in Canada, the USA, Mexico, Central America, and South America.

Distribution of Boraginaceae in the Americas

(Note this has not yet been updated after family revisions so there may be inaccuracies in genera and numbers.)

Canadian Genera Include:

Adelinia monospecific NAM endemic native BC; Amsinckia 6 spp native BC intro YT, AB, SK; Anchusa 3 spp intro all S provinces exc AB, NL; Andersonglossum 1 of 3 spp NAM endemic native all S provinces exc Labrador, also in YT; Asperugo monospecific intro BC, AB, SK, MB (and GL); Borago 1 sp intro all S provinces but ephemeral in ON, QC, NS, NL; Buglossoides 1 sp intro BC, MB, ON, QC, NS; Cerinthe 1 sp intro QC?; Cryptantha 11 spp native BC, AB, SK; Cynoglossum 1 sp intro all S Canada exc NL, PE;  Echium 2 spp intro all of S Canada exc Labrador;  Eritrichium 6 spp native YT, NT; Hackelia 6 spp native all of Canada exc NU, NS, PE, NL; Lappula 2 spp native YT, NT, BC, AB, SK, MB and intro ON, QC, NS, NB, PE, NL; Lithospermum 8 spp native BC, AB, SK, MB, ON, QC and intro NB;  Mertensia 7 spp native all of Canada inc Arctic (and GL); Myosotis 9 spp native BC, AB, YT, NT, ON, QC, NB, NS, PE, NL and intro SK, MB (and GL); Nonea 2 spp intro AB, QC; Omphalodes 2 spp intro BC, ON, QC; Oreocarya (s/t as a ~ Cryptantha) 1 of 63 NAM endemics native BC, AB, SK; Pectocarya 1 sp native BC; Pentaglottis 1 sp intro BC; Plagiobothrys 5 spp native BC, AB, SK, MB and intro YT, ON, QC, NB; Pulmonaria 2 spp intro ON, QC, NS; Symphytum 3 spp intro in all S Canada exc Labrador; Trigonotis 1 sp BC?.

USA Genera Include:

Adelinia monospecific NAM endemic native WA, OR, CA; Amsinckia 10 spp native W USA MT S to NM and all W, intro ND, NE, OK, TX, WI, IL, MS, OH, PA, NY, CT, MA, NH, ME, VA, NC, SC and intro AK, HI; Anchusa 5 spp intro much of USA exc NV, AZ, NM, NE, KS, OK, MO, AR, LA, MS, AL, GA, FL, SC, IN, WV, VT; Andersonglossum  3 of 3 spp NAM endemic native USA inc 1 sp endemic OR, CA, 1 sp endemic E USA MI, IL, IN, OH, PA, NJ, NY, VT, CT, KY, TN, MO, AL, FL, LA, TX and the 3^rd spp native S Canada and SD, IA, WI, IL, IN, NJ, NY, NH, ME; Antiphytum 2 spp native NM, TX; Asperugo monospecific intro CA, CO, IL; Borago 1 sp intro WA, OR, CA, UT, MT, ND, MI, IL, MN, WI, TN, OH, VA, WV, MD, PA, NJ, NY, CT, RI, MA, VT, NH, ME; Bothriospermum 1 sp intro HI; Brunnera 1 sp intro MO, OH, NY; Buglossoides 1 sp intro most of USA exc NV, AZ, NM; Carmona(~Ehretia) 1 sp intro HI; Cordia 11 spp intro and native AZ, TX, FL; Cryptantha 82 spp native in W USA from ND S to TX and all W, inc MA, native and intro AK; Cynoglossum 9 spp intro and native entire USA and intro HI; Dasynotus monospecific endemic ID; Echium 7 spp intro most of USA inc AK but exc NV, AZ, ND, MS, AL, FL; Eremocarya 2 of 2 spp S NAM endemic native OR, CA, NV, UT, AZ, NM, TX; Eritrichium 3 spp native AK, WA, OR, ID, WY, MT, CO, UT, NM; Hackelia 29 spp native almost all USA exc FL, native and intro AK; Greeneocharis 2 of 2 spp endemic Americas native W USA WA, OR, CA, ID, NV, AZ, UT, CO, inc 1 endemic CA; Harpagonella 1 of 2 spp S NAM endemic native CA, AZ;  Johnstonella of 17 spp endemic Americas native CA, NV, UT, AZ, NM, TX; Lappula 4 spp native and intro most USA inc AK but exc LA, MS, AL, FL, GA, VA; Lithospermum 17 spp native and intro all USA; Macromeria (~ Lithospermum) 1 sp native AZ, NM; Mertensia 18 spp native most of USA inc AK exc TX, OK, LA, FL; Mimophytum 1 of 10 spp S NAM endemic native TX; Myosotis 11 spp native and intro most of USA inc AK exc ND, intro in HI; Nonea 3 spp intro TN, PA, NY, ME; Omphalodes 2 spp native and intro OR, TX; Oreocarya 32 of 63 NAM endemics native W USA ND S to TX and all states W; Onosmodium (~Lithospermum) 4 spp native most of USA exc ME, WA, OR, ID, CA, NV, AZ; Pectocarya 8 spp native WA, OR, ID, WY, CA, NV, UT, AZ, NM, TX; Plagiobothrys 43 spp native WA, OR, CA, ID, MT, WY, CO, NV, UT, AZ, NM, ND, SD, NE, WI, MI, IL, AR, LA, NC, PA, MA, ME, intro and native AK; Pulmonaria 1 sp intro NY, VT;  Symphytum 3 spp intro WA, OR, CA, ID, MT, WY, UT, CO, NM, MI, WI, MN, MO, AR, TN, KY, GA, NC, VA, WV, IN, OH, PA, MD, DE, NJ, NY, CT, RI, MA, VT, NH, ME and AK; TTournefortia 2 spp native in TX, FL; Trigonotis 1 sp native CA of otherwise Russian/Asian family; Varronia 1 sp native TX, FL.

Mexico Genera Include:

Amphibologyne monospecific endemic NE, SW Mexico; Amsinckia spp native N Mexico;  Antiphytum spp native much of Mexico exc Chp, Cam, Tab, Yuc, QR; Borago intro SW+C Mexico; Cryptantha spp native N Mexico; Cynoglossum spp intro NE, SW Mexico; Eremocarya 2 of 2 spp S NAM endemic native BC, NW Mexico; Hackelia spp native all of Mexico; Harpagonella 2 of 2 spp S NAM endemic native BC, BCS, Guadalupe Is., Son; Johnstonella 17 of 17 spp endemic Americas native most of Mexico exc Chp, Tab, Cam, Yuc, QR; Lappula spp native N Mexico; Lithospermum spp native all of Mexico; Mimophytum 10 of 10 spp S NAM endemic native Coa, NL, Tam, Dgo, SLP, Pue, Qro, Hgo, Gto, Mex, Tlx, Ver, NE, C Mexico, Ver, inc 9 endemics of Mexico; Oncaglossum monospecific endemic NE,C, SW Mexico; Oreocarya of 63 NAM endemics native throughout N half of Mexico; Tournefortia spp native all of Mexico. 

Neotropical Genera Include:

Amsinckia 13 of 13 spp originally endemic temperate to tropical W Americas (W NAM and W SAM Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia. Chile, Argentina), but now intro Europe, Africa, E USA; Anchusa intro Argentina; Antiphytum 13 of 13 spp endemic S USA, Mexico, S Brazil and Uruguay; Borago intro Guatemala, Honduras, Greater Antilles, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, C Chile, Uruguay, Argentina; Buglossoides intro Bolivia, Argentina, Uruguay; Cryptantha,108 of 108 spp endemic Americas W Canada, W USA (and intro NY), N Mexico with most in USA, and a disjunct distribution in SAM Peru, Bolivia, N+C Chile, NW + S Argentina; Cynoglossum intro Jamaica, Haiti, Dominican Republic; Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, SE Brazil, Argentina, C+S Chile, Juan Fernandez Is.; Echium intro S SAM C+S Chile, Argentina,Uruguay, S Brazil; Greeneocharis 1 sp native NW+ S Argentina; Hackelia 55 spp native Americas, Europe, Asia, Australia, in neo native Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, NW Argentina; Iberodes 1 sp intro C Chile; Johnstonella 17 of 17 spp endemic Americas SW USA, Mexico and disjunct SAM in Peru, N Chile, NW Argentina; Lappula 82 spp pan-temperate N+S, intro Venezuela, native N+S Argentina, S Chile, most in N Europe and N Asia; Lithospermum 78 spp worldwide temperate to subtropical and tropical mountains, in neo region native Mexico, Guatemala, and Andes of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia;Moritzia 3 of 3 spp neo endemic native Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, SE+S Brazil; Myosotis intro neo in Guatemala, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, N+C Chile, N Argentina, SE Brazil, Uruguay, Trinidad-Tobago; Nesocaryum monospecific endemic of Desventurados Is. Off the coast of NC Chile; Pectocarya 12 of 12 spp endemic Americas Canada S to S SAM (absent CAM), in neo native Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, N+C Chile, Argentina, Plagiobothrys native Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, C+S Chile, NW+S Argentina; Rotula 2 of 2 spp native N+E Brazil inc 1 endemic N Brazil, the other spp also native in Africa, India, Asia; Selkirkia 4 of 4 spp SAM endemic inc 1 endemic Juan Fernandez Is, 2 endemic to C+S Chile and 1 endemic Colombia, Ecuador; Symphytum intro Dominican Republic, Haiti, C Brazil, NE Argentina; Thaumatocaryon  3 of 3 spp endemic S+SE Brazil, Paraguay, NE Argentina; Tournefortia native neo in CAM, Antilles, tropical SAM S to Bolivia, Paraguay, S Brazil.

Patagonia Genera Include:

Amsinckia spp native throughout Patagonia; Anchusa intro S Argentina; Asperugo monospecific intro Patagonia region; Borago intro C Chile, C+S Argentina; Buglossoides 1 sp intro S Argentina; Cynoglossum intro throughout Patagonia; Echium intro C+S Chile, C+S Argentina; Greeneocharis  1 sp native S Argentina; Lithospermum intro S Argentina; Myosotis native S Chile and S Argentina, with intro spp at the N end of region in SC Chile, SC Argentina as well as Falkland Is.; Pectocarya spp native S Argentina, SC Chile; Plagiobothrys native C+S Chile, S Argentina; Selkirkia 2 of 4 spp SAM endemic native SC and S Chile.

Additional Information and References

• Visit Lyrae’s Dictionary of Botanical Terms to learn the terminology of botanists. Note that if you hover over most of the words in the articles, you can also get definitions from them there.
• Willis, Lyrae (Unpublished). Plant Families of North America. This is where all of the family descriptions come from. Below should be most of my references for this, along with my own personal observations throughout North America.
• Canadensys: Acadia University, Université de Montréal Biodiversity Centre, University of Toronto Mississauga, University of British Columbia. http://data.canadensys.net/explorer (accessed 2020 – current)
• Watson, L., and Dallwitz, M.J. (1992+). The Families of Flowering Plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval. Version: 2nd May 2020. delta-intkey.com. Accessed spring through fall of 2020.
• FNA (1993+). Flora of North America. https://floranorthamerica.org/Main_Page. Accessed 2022-current.
• GBIF.org (2020+), GBIF Home Page. Available from: https://www.gbif.org
• iNaturalist.org (2020+). https://www.inaturalist.org/. Accessed 2020-current.
• Naturalista: CONABIO http://www.naturalista.mx (Accessed 2020–current).
• Neotropikey: Milliken, W., Klitgård, B., & Baracat, A. eds. (2009+). Neotropikey: Interactive key and information resources for flowering plants of the Neotropics. www.kew.org/neotropikey.com (accessed 2020 – current).
• Patagonia Wildflowers: Wildflower Identification Site. https://patagoniawildflowers.org/ Accessed throughout the fall of 2020.
• POWO (2019+). Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet: http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/
• Stevens, P. F. (2001+). Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 14, July 2017 [more or less continuously updated since]. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/. This is the authoritative source on currently accepted families, subfamilies, tribes, and genera.
• USDA, NRCS. 2020. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 2 June 2020). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC, USA; Accessed 2020-present.
• WFO (2022): World Flora Online. Published on the Internet: http://www.worldfloraonline.org. Accessed Spring 2022 – current