Last Updated April, 19, 2026

Introduction to the Campanulaceae Family

The Campanulaceae, or Bellflower family, is part of the Asterales order (related to sunflowers) of the core dicots. It is a widespread family found on every continent except Antarctica, and it is a popular garden ornamental for its lovely flowers. The first time I found one was on a grassy bluff next to the ocean, and I automatically knew what family it was in because of the pretty blue bell-shaped flowers with the long style that the family is best known for, although other colors and flower shapes do exist in the family.

 Common Botanical Description

If you’re new to plant morphology, this guide is a perfect beginner’s description, with no need to know any scientific jargon. Below this section is additional information on uses and morphology photos to help you identify the family, followed by pictures of individual species found in North America. But for researchers or those wanting to learn a more in-depth version, refer to the Scientific Botanical Description below the images for highly detailed scientific descriptions and genus-level distribution data.

Leaves and Stems: Most members are perennial herbs, but some annuals, biennials, shrubs, or small trees exist in the family; mostly they live on land, but some are aquatic. One key identifying feature is the milky juice that is released when they are damaged.

Leaves are usually arranged alternately on the stem but are sometimes in opposite pairs or whorls. They are usually simple (not compound), linear, lance-shaped, oblong, egg-shaped, or rounded with variously toothed margins but are occasionally divided into opposite pairs of leaflets.

Flowers: Flowers are often medium to large and showing, appearing singly or in various spikes or umbrella-shaped clusters. Flowers are typically bell-shaped or star-shaped, giving them the common name of bellflowers. Most are in shades of blue, but they can also be found in white, yellow, red, pink, or purple. Flowers are often symmetrical but can be irregular or “two-lipped,” like in Lobelia.

Reproductive Features: Reproductive features are specialized to ensure successful pollination by insects. There are usually 5 stamens (male parts) that may be separate or joined in a long column surrounding the female parts (ovary, style). Most species have an inferior ovary located below where the petals attach. A single long style comes up through the center of the flower.

Fruits: The fruit is almost always a dry capsule that splits open through valves, irregular slits, or other ways to release the seeds. Very rarely the fruit is a fleshy berry (mostly in the Lobelioideae subfamily). Some seeds are equipped with wings to aid in dispersal.

Uses of the Campanulaceae Family

With plenty of showy flowers, this family is popular for garden ornamentals, especially from Lobelia, Wahlenbergia, Codonopsis, Jasione, and more than 120 species of Campanula.

Morphology of Campanulaceae in North America

Some Campanulaceae Species of North America

Campanuloideae Subfamily

Campanula alaskana—Alaska Bellflower

Herbaceous perennial from rhizomes with weak stems with larger basal leaves and small, linear stem leaves. Flowers are large and showy, bell-shaped, nodding, and up to 3 cm long in blue-violet to lavender colors. It is often confused with Campanula rotundifolia but has broader leaves, and it is only found along the North Pacific from Washington State north to Alaska.

Campanula petiolata—Western Harebell

This was a recent taxon split from the much more widespread Campanula rotundifolia, with which it shares many characteristics but tends to be more upright with stronger stems. The long style with a 3-lobed tip visible in the photo is common among Campanula rotundifolia and close relatives like these. Some taxonomists do not recognize this or Campanula alaskana as separate species from Campanula rotundifolia.

Campanulastrum americanum—American Bellflower

A tall, erect annual or biennial common in moist woods. Unlike most bellflowers, it has flat star-shaped flowers in elongated spikes, and it has alternate lance-shaped leaves compared to the often linear ones seen in Campanula species.

Triodanis biflora—Venus’s Looking Glass

This species is an annual herb of disturbed areas with alternate leaves that do not wrap around the stem. It has pinkish to purple bell flowers with widely spreading lobes that make them look like a star. Native to the southern and eastern United States, Mexico, and South America.

Triodanis perfoliata—Clasping Venus’s Looking Glass

This species is very similar to Triodanis biflora, with a similar native range, though perhaps a bit more widespread. It can usually be differentiated by the leaves shown here that clasp and nearly wrap all the way around the stem. However, they can hybridize, making identification difficult.

Lobelioideae Subfamily

Lobelia appendiculata—Pale Lobelia

This species is an annual unbranced herb that grows up to 60 cm tall with oblong to egg-shaped leaves that clasp partway around the stem. It has pale blue to white two-lipped flowers (2 upper lobes, 3 larger lower ones) in a loose terminal spike. It is native to the south-central USA.

Lobelia cardinalis—Cardinal Flower

This herbaceous perennial grows up to 1.2 m tall and is found mostly in or near bogs, riverbanks, swamps, or wet forests. It has large lance-shaped to oval leaves with toothed margins. Flowers are large and bright red with 5 deeply cut lobes. Plants with pink or white flowers occasionally occur. It is native from southeastern Canada through the eastern and southern USA, south to northern Colombia.

Lobelia spicata—Pale Spike Lobelia

This short-lived perennial is often found flowering below taller grasses in sunny or semi-shade prairies, woodlands, and disturbed areas. They have simple, variously elongated-shaped leaves with shallow teeth and are most known for their sometimes densely flowered spikes of white or pale blue flowers, like those in the photo. Native to southern Canada and the eastern USA.

Scientific Botanical Description

Flowers of the Campanulaceae Family

Plants are hermaphrodites. Pollination is entomophilous and conspicuously specialized (via modifications of the style with sterile tissue covering the stigmas at anthesis). Usually active in Lobelioideae (otherwise usually passive). Flowers are solitary or aggregated in cymes, racemes, spikes, and umbels; scapiflorous or not; terminal or axillary; with or without involucral bracts; pseudanthial or not. Flowers are medium to large; regular to very irregular; 5-merous; tetracyclic. Perianth has a distinct calyx and corolla; 10 or 16–20 (Michauxia); 2-whorled; isomerous. Calyx 5 or 8–10 (Michauxia); 1 whorled; free or connate (depending on interpretation, with the tube nearly always being united with the ovary); basally appendaged (e.g., Campanula with adjoining pairs of sepals contributing to each appendage); spurred or neither; imbricate or valvate. Epicalyx is sometimes present. Corolla 5 or 8–10 (Michauxia); 1 whorled; connate (usually) or free (e.g. Jasione); valvate; often campanulate with long tubular bells or open starry ones; bilabiate or regular; mostly blue, but also white, yellow, red, pink, or purple; spurred (e.g., Heterotoma) or not spurred.

Androecium of the Campanulaceae Family

5 or 8–10 (Michauxia). Androecial members are free of the perianth or adnate low down on the corolla; free of one another or coherent; 1 whorled, sometimes forming an elongate column around the style. Stamens 5 or 8–10 (Michauxia); exclusively fertile; isomerous with the perianth; opposite sepals; alternating with the corolla members; filantherous or laminar and filantherous (e.g., being laminate below the filaments in Wahlenbergia). Filaments are sometimes basally appendiculate (e.g., Campanula sulphurea) or not. Anthers cohering (sometimes terminating an androecial column, e.g., Centropogon, Burmeistera) or separate; dehiscing via longitudinal slits; introrse; tetrasporangiate.

Gynoecium of the Campanulaceae Family

2, 3, 5 (8 in Ostrowskia) or 8–10 carpelled (Michauxia). The pistil is 2 or 3 celled or occasionally 5 (6–10) celled. The gynoecium is synstylovarious and inferior (usually) or superior (rarely). Ovary 2, 3, or 5(6–10) locular. Styles 1. Stigmas equal in number to carpels (2, 3, or up to 10); wet or dry type; papillate or non-papillate; Group II or IV type. Placentation axile. Ovules 10–50 per locule; horizontal; non-arillate; anatropous; unitegmic; tenuinucellate.  

Fruit of the Campanulaceae Family

fleshy (rarely) or non-fleshy (~ always); dehiscent septicidal, loculicidal, valvular or irregularly splitting capsule or rare indehiscent berry. Seeds are endospermic, oily, and rarely starchy. Seeds small; winged or wingless. 

Habit & Leaf Form of the Campanulaceae Family

Mostly perennial herbs with some annual or biennial; a few shrubs or small trees; laticiferous; heights from 8 cm to over 2 m tall (excluding trees). With or without a basal aggregation of leaves. The trees are pachycaul. Variously hydrophytic to xerophytic; when hydrophytic rooted. Leaves of hydrophytes are submerged and emergent. Leaves usually alternate or sometimes are opposite or whorled. They are petiolate or subsessile, sheathing or non-sheathing, and when sheathing they have free margins. Leaves are not gland-dotted, are epulvinate, exstipulate, and are usually simple or sometimes compound–pinnate. Lamina, when simple, is dissected or entire. When entire, it is linear, lanceolate, oblanceolate, oblong, ovate, obovate, or orbicular. When dissected, it is pinnatifid or palmatifid. Leaves exstipulate. Lamina margins are crenate, serrate, or dentate.

Taxonomy of Campanulaceae

There are 2,380 species in 84 genera of the Asterales order of the core Eudicots (dicots).

The family is divided into five subfamilies, 2 of which are very widespread:

1. Campanuloideae is a large subfamily characterized by polysymmetric flowers, stamens that sprawl at the bottom of the corolla tube after the anthers have dehisced, an inferior ovary, and long-hairy styles. These are widespread and found worldwide, with especially high diversity in the north temperate Old World.
2. Lobelioideae is a subfamily of herbs or small trees with terminal, occasionally axilary inflorescences and large to small resupinate flowers. Stamen filaments are connate at least apically, and anthers are connate. They are mostly tropical, especially common in the New World with a major center of diversity in the Andes and over 100 endemic species found on the Hawaiian Islands. They are not present in the Arctic and are absent from the Near East and central Asia.
3. Nemacladoideae is a small subfamily of tiny annuals (rarely perennial) with sub-opposite leaves, racemes without bracteoles, and small flowers that are not resupinate. Anthers are connivent; filaments are connate apically and may be free at the base. These are restricted to the southwestern USA (especially California) and northwestern Mexico.
4. Cyphioideae is a group of perennial herbs (twining vines) and shrubs with tuberous roots. The fused corolla is split almost to the base into two groups, usually with three upper lobes and two lower lobes. Stamen filaments may be free or connate. Mostly in Southern Africa but also in East Africa and the Cape Verde Islands.
5. Cyphocarpoideae is a small subfamily endemic to Chile and is made of annual or perennial spiny herbs with deeply lobed leaf margins and foliaceous bracts. The upper corolla lobe is sub-hooded, and the lower lobes show three ridges.

Genera:

Campanuloideae: Adenophora (62), Asyneuma (32), Azorina (1), Berenice (1), Campanula (449), Canarina (3), Codonopsis (48), Craterocapsa (5), Cryptocodon (1), Cyananthus (21), Cyclocodon (3), Cylindrocarpa (1), Echinocodon (1), Edraianthus (22), Favratia (1), Feeria (1), Githopsis (4), Gunillaea (2), Hanabusaya (1), Heterochaenia (4), Heterocodon (1), Himalacodon (1), Homocodon (2), Jasione (14), Kericodon (1), Legousia (6), Merciera (6), Michauxia (7), Microcodon (4), Muehlbergella (1), Musschia (3), Namacodon (1), Nesocodon (1), Ostrowskia (1), Pankycodon (1), Peracarpa (1), Petromarula (1), Physoplexis (1), Phyteuma (22), Platycodon (1), Prismatocarpus (27), Pseudocodon (8), Rhigiophyllum (1), Roella (22), Sachokiella (1), Sergia (2), Siphocodon (2), Solenopsis (8), Theilera (2), Theodorovia (1), Trachelium (2), Treichelia (2), Triodanis (6), Trochocodon (??), Wahlenbergia (262), Zeugandra (2).

Lobelioideae: Apetahia (ZZ), Brighamia (2), Burmeistera (123), Centropogon (213), Clermontia (22), Cyanea (80), Delissea (15), Dialypetalum (5), Diastatea (6), Dielsantha (1), Downingia (13), Grammatotheca (1), Heterotoma (1), Hippobroma (1), Howellia (1), Isotoma (10), Legenere (1), Lobelia (439), Lysipomia (32), Monopsis (15), Palmerella (1), Phyllocharis (??), Porterella (1), Ruthiella (4), Sclerotheca (10), Siphocampylus (238), Trematolobelia (8), Unigenes (1), Wimmerella (10).

Nemacladoideae: Nemacladus (18), Parishella (??), Pseudonemacladus (1).

Cyphioideae: Cyphia (68).

Cyphocarpoideae: Cyphocarpus (3).

Key Differences From Similar Families

Campanulaceae is easy to distinguish by the combined presence of latex, simple leaves, and inferior ovary. Material from Acanthaceae, Lamiaceae, and Rubiaceae with a long reddish or orange corolla tube is often placed in Campanulaceae, but they differ in leaves, usually opposite, and free stamens and anthers. Allied families such as Pentaphragmataceae, Stylidiaceae (including Donatiaceae), Sphenocleaceae and Goodeniaceae (including Brunoniaceae), can be distinguished from Campanulaceae by the lack of latex. Goodeniaceae have a style with apical hairy pollen-collecting indusium and stylar cup; Pentaphragmataceae and Stylidiaceae have extrorse anthers.

Distribution of Campanulaceae

From frigid zones to tropical climates with a cosmopolitan distribution excluding tropical Africa and Antarctica. Found from deserts to rainforests and the Arctic, but the majority of species are by far northern temperate species.

In the Americas they are found through Canada, including the Arctic (and Greenland), south through the USA, Mexico, Central, and South America.

Distribution of Campanulaceae in the Americas

NOTE: This data was gathered 4-5 years ago and may not reflect current genus names and status.

Canadian Genera Include:

Campanula 19 spp native in all of Canada inc the Arctic (and GL), inc 1 sp intro BC; Downingia 2 of 13 spp originally endemic Americas native BC, AB, SK, intro temperate Europe; Githopsis 1 of 4 spp W NAM endemic native S Vancouver Island BC; Heterocodon monospecific W NAM endemic native BC; Isotoma 1 sp intro BC; Jasione 1 sp intro BC?; Lobelia 2 spp native BC, ON, QC and ephemeral NB; Triodanis 1 of 6 spp endemic Americas native BC, ON, QC.

USA Genera Include:

Asyneuma 1 sp native OR, CA; Brighamia 2 of 2 spp endemic HI; Campanula 34 spp inc 33 native most of USA inc AK but exc OK, AR, LA, MS, and 1 sp intro NV, NH; Clermontia 22 of 22 spp endemic HI; Cyanea 80 of 80 spp endemic HI; Delissea 15 of 15 spp endemic HI; Downingia 13 of 13 spp originally endemic Americas native WA, ID, MT, OR, WY, CA, NV, UT, inc 9 USA endemics, mostly in CA, another spp now intro temperate Europe; Githopsis 4 of 4 spp W NAM endemic native MT, WA, OR, CA, inc 2 endemic CA; Heterocodon monospecific W NAM endemic native WA, OR, CA, NV, ID, MT, WY, CO; Hippobroma monospecific intro FL, HI; Howellia monospecific endemic WA, ID, MT, OR, CA; Jasione 1 sp intro WA, OR, NC, MD, PA, DE, NY, CT, NJ, RI, MA; Legenere monospecific Americas disjunct endemic of CA + Patagonia; Legousia 1 sp intro CA, PA; Lobelia 43 spp native and intro entire USA inc HI, native AK; Nemacladus 17 of 18 spp W NAM endemic native OR, ID, CA, NV, UT, AZ, NM inc 8 endemic USA 5 of which are endemic CA; Palmerella monospecific endemic S CA + N BC; Platycodon 1 sp intro NY, PA, NC and HI; Porterella monospecific endemic OR, ID, WY, CA, UT, AZ; Trematolobelia 8 of 8 spp endemic HI; Triodanis 6 of 6 spp originally endemic Americas native all USA exc NV, intro HI, E Asia, Australia, inc 5 USA endemics 2 of which are endemic TX; Wahlenbergia 2 spp intro TX, LA, AR, MS, AL, GA, SC, NC, FL. 

Mexico Genera Include:

Campanula spp native NE Mexico; Centropogon of 213 spp endemic Americas native most of Mexico exc NW; Diastatea 5 of 6 spp endemic Americas native most of Mexico (exc NW), inc 3 Mexico endemics; Downingia 1 of 13 spp originally endemic Americas native NW Mexico, intro temperate Europe; Githopsis 1 of 4 spp endemic W NAM native BC, Guadalupe Is; Heterotoma monospecific Neo endemic native NE+C+SW+NE Mexico; Hippobroma monospecific intro all of Mexico; Nemacladus 10 of 18 spp W NAM endemic native NW Mexico, mostly in BC, inc 1 endemic BC; Palmerella monospecific endemic S CA + N BC; Pseudonemacladus monospecific endemic NE Mexico; Triodanis 1 of 6 spp originally endemic Americas native Mexico exc SE and intro Asia, Australia; Wimmeranthus monospecific endemic SW Mexico.

Neotropical Genera Include:

Burmeistera 123 of 123 spp Neo endemic Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru; Centropogon 213 of 213 spp endemic Mexico, CAM (exc Belize), tropical SAM to Bolivia, C+SE Brazil inc 2 spp endemic Lesser Antilles; Cyphocarpus 3 of 3 spp endemic N+C Chile; Diastatea 3 of 6 spp endemic Americas native CAM (exc Belize), Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, NE Argentina; Heterotoma monospecific Neo endemic native Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica; Hippobroma longiflora originally endemic Jamaica but widely intro tropical Americas, Madagascar, India, tropical Asia etc; Lobelia large cosmopolitan genus with 65 spp native Mexico, CAM, Antilles, all of SAM exc Guyana and inc Galapagos; Lysipomia 32 of 32 spp endemic Andes of SAM from Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia; Siphocampylus 238 of 238 spp Neo endemic Costa Rica, Panama, Greater Antilles, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil (exc N), Paraguay, N Argentina, Uruguay; Triodanis 1 of 6 spp originally endemic Americas native Guatemala, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, S+SE Brazil, Uruguay, Argentina, intro Jamaica, Dominican Republic, Asia, Australia; Wahlenbergia large pantropical genus with 6 spp Neo endemic E+S Brazil (inc 1 Brazil endemic), Colombia, French Guiana, Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Paraguay, Argentina, C+S Chile, Uruguay.

Patagonia Genera Include:

Campanula spp intro S Argentina, Falkland Is; Downingia 1 of 13 spp originally endemic Americas native Patagonia and also native in California; Legenere monospecific Americas disjunct endemic of CA + Patagonia; Lobelia spp native Patagonia inc Falkland Is and intro South Georgia Is; Triodanis 1 of 6 spp originally endemic Americas native S Argentina; Wahlenbergia 1 sp native Patagonia.

Additional Information and References

• Visit Lyrae’s Dictionary of Botanical Terms to learn the terminology of botanists. Note that if you hover over most of the words in the articles, you can also get definitions from them there.
• Willis, Lyrae (Unpublished). Plant Families of North America. This is where all of the family descriptions come from. Below should be most of my references for this, along with my own personal observations throughout North America.
• Canadensys: Acadia University, Université de Montréal Biodiversity Centre, University of Toronto Mississauga, University of British Columbia. http://data.canadensys.net/explorer (accessed 2020 – current)
• Watson, L., and Dallwitz, M.J. (1992+). The Families of Flowering Plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval. Version: 2nd May 2020. delta-intkey.com. Accessed spring through fall of 2020.
• FNA (1993+). Flora of North America. https://floranorthamerica.org/Main_Page. Accessed 2022-current.
• GBIF.org (2020+), GBIF Home Page. Available from: https://www.gbif.org
• iNaturalist.org (2020+). https://www.inaturalist.org/. Accessed 2020-current.
• Naturalista: CONABIO http://www.naturalista.mx (Accessed 2020–current).
• Neotropikey: Milliken, W., Klitgård, B., & Baracat, A. eds. (2009+). Neotropikey: Interactive key and information resources for flowering plants of the Neotropics. www.kew.org/neotropikey.com (accessed 2020 – current).
• Patagonia Wildflowers: Wildflower Identification Site. https://patagoniawildflowers.org/ Accessed throughout the fall of 2020.
• POWO (2019+). Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet: http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/
• Stevens, P. F. (2001+). Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 14, July 2017 [more or less continuously updated since]. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/
• USDA, NRCS. 2020. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 2 June 2020). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC, USA; Accessed 2020-present.
• Wikipedia: The free encyclopedia. (2004, July 22). FL: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Retrieved throughout 2019-current from https://www.wikipedia.org (mostly just for family uses)
• WFO (2022): World Flora Online. Published on the Internet: http://www.worldfloraonline.org. Accessed Spring 2022 – current