Page last updated October 29, 2026.
Introduction to the Amaranthaceae Family
The Amaranthaceae family is part of the Caryophyllales order of core eudicots (dicots), made of mostly herbs or shrubs that are often found growing in disturbed habitats, making them often very weedy. However, many edible plants come from the Amaranthaceae, including commercially important ones.
Still, most of us will recognize this maligned family as weeds, often noxious ones, like certain Amaranth, Salsola, and Bassia, to name just a few. They are hardy herbs or sub-shrubs that can grow in deserts, saline or alkaline soils, and extreme heat.
I have always thought that instead of waging war on amaranth with glyphosate (to which most are now resistant, which is why we have “Roundup Ready” crops so they can still kill the amaranth without killing the crops), we should grow it and eat it instead. It will grow in marginal lands already badly degraded by conventional farming (chemicals and tilling), and it needs very little water and very little fertilizer. You can also harvest about 60-80% of the leaves (eat them like spinach; they are delicious!) without it impacting seed production. Seeds can be eaten in porridge or ground into a gluten-free flour for baking with (mmm… zucchini bread and carrot cake). It is far more nutritious than the corn and wheat fields it competes with. Lesson: EAT THE WEEDS instead of poisoning ourselves trying to kill them!
Beginner’s Guide to the Amaranth (Amaranthaceae) Family
If you’re new to plant morphology, this guide is a perfect beginner’s description to teach you how to identify the Amaranth (Amaranthaceae) family, with no need to know any scientific jargon. Below is additional information on uses and morphology, as well as pictures to help identify family members and individual species found in North America.
But for researchers or those wanting to learn a more in-depth version, check out the Scientific Botanical Description below the images in addition to genus-level distribution data.
Field Key Summary for the Amaranthaceae (Amaranth/Goosefoot) Family
- Mostly annual or perennial herbs, woody-based sub-shrubs, or shrubs; stems frequently feature thickened, swollen joints (nodes) and may be fleshy (succulent) or vertically striped.
- Leaves are simple (unlobed or toothed), arranged either in opposite pairs or alternately along the stem; in specialized desert/saline species, leaves may be reduced to tiny scales or completely absent on fleshy green stems.
- Foliage is often covered in small hairs or coated in a whitish, powdery, or mealy dust that rubs off on the fingers.
- Masses of tiny, inconspicuous flowers clustered in dense terminal spikes, rounded heads, or tight axillary balls; clusters are framed by persistent, dry, papery, or spiny leaf-like scales (bracts).
- True petals are absent; flowers consist of small, greenish, scale-like, or dry, papery tepals that often feel straw-like or chaffy to the touch.
- Fruits are mostly tiny, dry, bladder-like (utricles) or small lid-opening capsules; they typically remain wrapped in the dried flower parts, which often develop papery wings, sharp spines, or bumpy knobs to aid in dispersal.
Leaves and Stems of the Amaranth Family
Most members are annual or perennial herbs or shrubs, sometimes described as sub-shrubs due to their somewhat woody nature; they are frequently found in disturbed habitats, saline soils, arid regions, and other marginal habitats.
Stems often have thickened joints (nodes) and may become fleshy (succulent) in some species, particularly saline-adapted plants with reduced scaly leaves.
Leaves vary in size from tiny scales to large, well-developed leaves but are also occasionally absent. Leaves are usually simple (not compound) and may be in opposite pairs or alternately arranged along the stem. Young members of the Chenopodioideae subfamily often have a coating of powdery hairs (farinose) that makes them feel greasy or look like they have been dusted in flour.
Flowers of the Amaranth Family
Flowers are usually very small to minute and grow in spikes, heads, tight clusters, or branched clusters. They are most often accompanied by conspicuous papery leaf-like structures (bracts) that stay on the plant for a long time.
Rather than petals, flowers are typically made of thin and papery tepals that look more like scales or sepals, often stiff, prickly, and dry, and may be brightly colored. They sometimes remain attached to the fruits as they grow, developing into wings, spines, or bumps to help protect or distribute them. However, the flowers of many Chenopodioideae are a bit different; while still small, they are usually greenish and appear in fleshy-granular clusters that resemble broccoli florets.
Reproductive Features of the Amaranth Family
These are very diverse in the family, ranging from flowers with both male and female parts (bisexual) to separate male and female flowers on separate plants (dioecious). And since the flowers are tiny, these features are seldom easily visible, so we’ll skip it here. But you can check out the scientific botanical description below for more information.
Fruits of the Amaranth Family
Fruits may be dry, bladder-like fruits (utricles) or capsules that may split open from the top, but occasionally they are small, fleshy berry-like fruits. In many species, the fruit stays enclosed in and is dispersed with persistent tepals or bracts that often grow into wings, spines, and other features in the fruit to aid in dispersal. Seeds are typically small, hard, glossy, and dark to ivory in color (like those of quinoa).
Morphology of Amaranthaceae in North America
Here are some morphology photos based on North American species to help you identify the family in the field.
Some Amaranthaceae Species Found in North America
Now here we will break it down by subfamily to help you learn to recognize the diversity in the different subfamilies.
Amaranthoideae Subfamily
Achyranthes aspera—Chaff Flower
This is a tall herb, up to 2 m tall, with silky or short-hairy stems and variable leaves, often somewhat egg-shaped to rounded. Sessile flowers are in a long spike surrounded by persistent awned bracts and bracteoles. These pantropical herbs are introduced to the southern USA and Mexico.
Amaranthus arenicola—Sand Amaranth
This dioecious annual (male and female flowers on separate plants) is common in sandy habitats, hence its common name. It has simple leaves and grows 2 m tall. Flowers occur in congested clusters (as shown in the photo). Native to the central and south Great Plains of the United States.
Amaranthus palmeri—Palmer’s Amaranth
This species is a fast-growing, aggressive herb that grows to 1.5+ m tall with diamond-shaped leaves on long stalks. Flowers are in terminal spikes or drooping branched inflorescences, as shown in the photo. Native to southern North America but now widely introduced and considered one of the most noxious weeds in the world. It is also edible and highly nutritious and can be used as a food crop in marginal environments.
Amaranthus retroflexus—Red Root Amaranth
Red Root Amaranth is a tall herb, growing to 3 m tall, that is pubescent and hairy and has rhombic or ovate leaves with long petioles. Flowers are in terminal and axillary spikes or panicles. It is believed to be native to eastern and central North America, though due to its weedy nature, its original native range has been obscured.
Camphorosmoideae Subfamily
Bassia scoparia—Summer Cypress
This Amaranthaceae member is an annual herb that grows up to 1.5 m tall and has linear–lanceolate leaves that often curl and a stem that is often reddish. Inconspicuous flowers grow in the leaf axils, with much more conspicuous bracts that are 0.5-1 cm long. This Eurasian species is introduced and highly invasive throughout much of the American continents.
Chenopodioideae Subfamily
Atriplex canescens—Four-Wing Saltbush
Four wing salbush is a lovely woody shrub with an occasional spine on its branches, as well as plenty of more or less stalkless, somewhat oblong leaves and tiny flowers in congested spikes, as shown here. It produces conspicuous, winged greenish bracteoles that expand in fruit and turn papery and beige, becoming wings. This common Amaranthaceae member is native and widespread in the western USA.
Atriplex confertifolia—Spiny Saltbrush
This species is another saltbush that has wider leaves and shorter, unwinged fruits that are less conspicuous, and it also has many more spines on its branches. It’s also native to dry areas of the western USA, especially in the Great Basin region.
Chenopodiastrum simplex—Giant-Seeded Goosefoot
This herb has larger leaves than most of the family; they are 3–10 cm long and more than half as wide, with irregular, large pointy teeth, lobes, or lobules (of varying depths), mostly hairless stems and leaves, and small flowers without petals. It is native to much of North America.
Chenopodium album—White Goosefoot
White goosefoot is a very common erect annual with visible lines down its stems in green or reddish-purple. Their leaves are diamond-shaped to eggshaped, and their flowers are in compact cymes in terminal or lateral spikes. It was introduced from Eurasia and is widespread in North America.
Krascheninnikovia lanata—Winterfat
Winterfat is a curious small shrub with flat lance-shaped leaves. Leaves and stems are both white and woolly, turning reddish. It’s easiest to identify by its fruits (utricles—shown in the photo) that are very densely woolly and visible all winter, giving it its common name of “winterfat.” The silky hairs help the fruits disperse in the wind. It is endemic to western North America from Canada south to northern Mexico.
Gomphrenoideae Subfamily
Froelichia floridana—Large Cottonweed or Plains Snakecotton
A small annual with a single erect or ascending stem and leaves on the bottom third of the plant that are lanceolate to linear with silky-wooly hairs. Flowers are in hairy spikes, and the fruits are flask-shaped utricles. Native to the central and eastern USA and northern Mexico.
Gomphrena serrata—Prostrate Globe Amaranth
An erect or prostrate perennial or annual, with a pilose stem and obovate to oblong pilose leaves that are sessile to petiolate. Flowers in a head covered by white lanceolate bracteoles. Native to the southeastern USA, south to the tropical Americas.
Iresine diffusa—Juba’s Bush
This is a weedy, branched, erect-to-clambering, annual-to-perennial with elongated, egg-shaped leaves that are 3-14 cm long and hairless to woolly-hairy. Flowers are in woolly-hairy branched open inflorescences (males) or compacted ones (females). This species is native to South America and has been introduced into North America.
Salicornioideae Subfamily
Salicornia pacifica—Sea Asparagus
This is a succulent perennial holophyte native to the Pacific Coast of North America, from Alaska south through Canada, the continental USA, and into the Pacific Coast of Mexico. It lives in tidal salt marshes, estuary mudflats, and coastal lagoons. It has jointed succulent stems, leaves reduced to scaly collars, and the green branch tips turn red to purple in the fall before shedding for the winter. This was in Madiera Park, BC, Canada.
Salsoideae Subfamily
Halogeton glomeratus—Salt Lover
This well-branched, low-growing annual has narrow fleshy blue-green leaves tipped with long spines and flowers that grow densely along the branches with large, conspicuous, waxy, winged bracts. This species is native to Central Asia and introduced in western North America. It is often easy to spot because it is a halophyte, or salt-loving species that grows where many other plants cannot.
Salsola tragus aka Kali Tragus—Tumbleweed
This is probably our most common “tumbleweed” in North America, a low-growing, rounded annual with branched and tangled stems that break off easily when mature to roll across the plains and spread its seeds. It has firm, more or less linear, and usually very spine-tipped leaves. Flowers are surrounded by long spiny bracts and a disk of winged white/pink sepals. This Amaranthaceae member is from Russia and widely introduced in western North America.
Uses of the Amaranthaceae
The Amaranthaceae family has a few cultivated ornamentals that are from Amaranthus, Gomphrena, Ptilotus, and Iresine. Some of our most noxious weeds are from Amaranthus spp., Salsola/Kali tragus, and Bassia scoparia. In fact, I currently have all three growing everywhere in my yard. Since Amaranthus palmeri is native here, but the other two are not, I let the amaranth grow (and eat the leaves!) and kill the other two off every year, but they are persistent, noxious weeds.
Amaranthus species are also used as food in many parts of the world. In the Americas, Native American, Mesoamerican, and Andean civilizations all used to cultivate it for both the greens, eaten as a vegetable, and the seeds, which were often ground into flour. Amaranth seeds and flour are gaining renewed interest as they make a suitable replacement for wheat for those with grain allergies and gluten intolerance, and they are incredibly tough and able to grow where most conventional crops like wheat and corn cannot.
Other commercially grown species include quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa), spinach (Spinacia oleracea), and the sugar beet and Swiss chard from Beta vulgaris.
Ecosystem and Wildlife Values of Amaranthaceae
The Amaranthaceae often form keystone browse, forage, and habitat in extreme arid, semi-arid, and saline regions where most flowering plants cannot survive, providing primary nutrition for herbivore communities in those regions. For instance, saltbush (Atriplex), winterfat (Krascheninnikovia), hopsage (Grayia), and bluebush (Maireana) retain green, protein- and mineral-rich foliage throughout dry seasons and winter months, providing critical forage for pronghorn antelope, mule deer, bighorn sheep, and more. And succulent halophytes (Salicornioideae and Suaedoideae) often drive estuarine and intertidal trophic webs.
The dense seed production of the Amaranthaceae also makes them invaluable food sources for songbirds, gamebirds, and granivorous small mammals. They also act as larval hosts for numerous butterfly and moth species and provide late-season nectar for pollinators.
Taxonomy of Amaranthaceae
The Amaranthaceae family (sensu lato, including the Chenopodiaceae) comprises about 180 accepted genera and about 2000–2500 species within the core eudicot order, Caryophyllales. Under modern phylogenetic circumscription established by the Caryophyllales Network (Kadereit et al., 2011; Hernández-Ledesma et al., 2015; APG IV), the family is delineated into 10 distinct subfamilies.
1. Amaranthoideae Subfamily
The Amaranthoideae are annual or perennial herbs, subshrubs, shrubs, lianas, or occasionally small trees. Cuticle waxes lack platelets, and hairs are predominantly uniseriate (simple, dendroid, or stellate). The inflorescences are solitary or branched, typically forming dense spikes, racemes, thyrses, or heads. The bracts are persistent or disarticulating, and bracteoles (2) may be scarious, chataceous, or spinescent. The perianth is typically scarious or with membranous tepals; there are 1-5 stamens; it typically possesses staminodes or pseudostaminodes; and the anthers are bilocular, a key diagnostic trait.
Genera of the Amaranthoideae Subfamily
Achyranthes (33), Aerva (7, 6 extant), Allmania (3), Allmaniopsis (1), Amaranthus (~93), Arthraerua (1), Bosea (3), Calicorema (2), Celosia (~46), Centema (2), Centemopsis (13), Chamissoa (3), Charpentiera (6), Chionothrix (2), Cyathula (~44), Dasysphaera (4), Deeringia (10), Digera (1), Eriostylos (1), Evelynastra (1), Hebanthodes (1), Henonia (1), Herbstia (1), Hermbstaedtia (14), Indobanalia (1), Kyphocarpa (4), Lagrezia (14), Lecosia (2, new genus, sometimes in Gomphrenoideae), Leucosphaera (1), Lopriorea (1), Marcelliopsis (3), Mechowia (2), Neocentema (2), Nothosaerva (1), Nyssanthes (4), Omegandra (1), Ouret (8), Paraerva (2), Pleuropetalum (3), Pleuropterantha (3), Polyrhabda (1), Psilotrichopsis (1), Psilotrichum (26), Ptilotus (~127), Pupalia (4), Rosifax (1), Saltia (1), Sebsebea (1), Sericocoma (3), Sericorema (2), Sericostachys (2), Siamosia (1), Stilbanthus (1), Trichuriella (1), Volkensinia (1), Wadithamnus (1).
2. Betoideae Subfamily
The Betoideae are annual to perennial herbs or occasionally dwarf subshrubs or woody climbers. Bracteoles are usually present; the perianth has 5 (or 3-4) parts that are herbaceous or coriaceous and often persistent, hardened, or accrescent in fruit. The androecium has 5 (rarely 1-4) members, and the gynoecium is sometimes partly inferior. The fruit is a pyxidium (circumscissile capsule) with the top coming off like a lid or an indehiscent capsule in a hardened or accrescent perianth.
Genera of the Betoideae Subfamily
Acroglochin (1-3 placement unresolved), Aphanisma (1), Beta (10), Hablitzia (1), Oreobliton (1), Patellifolia (1).
3. Camphorosmoideae Subfamily
The Camphorosmoideae are often shrubs or subshrubs or may be annual herbs and exhibit either C₃ or C₄ photosynthesis. Their leaves are simple and linear to semi-terete, often fleshy or succulent, bearing hairs with swollen bases, and are without stipules. The styles are filiform with papillae all around. The perianth is herbaceous and becomes accrescent and heavily modified, producing wings, spines, tubercules, or horns, or rarely becoming fleshy. There are 2-3 filiform stigmas entirely covered in papillae. The fruit is an indehiscent utricle.
Genera of the Camphorosmoideae Subfamily
Bassia (20+), Camphorosma (5), Chenolea (2), Didymanthus (1), Dissocarpus (4), Enchylaena (1), Eokochia (1), Eremophea (2), Eriochiton (1), Grubovia (6), Maireana (58), Malacocera (4), Neobassia (2), Neokochia (2), Osteocarpum (5), Roycea (3), Sclerolaena (78), Spirobassia (1), Threlkeldia (2).
4. Chenopodioideae Subfamily
The Chenopodioideae are annual herbs or short-lived perennial herbs, subshrubs, or shrubs that are more or less succulent and often have swollen nodes and farinose (or sometimes glandular) hairs, preferring dry or saline temperate to subtropical habitats. Flowers are small and have a greenish perianth that often becomes more elaborate after flowering and is accrescent with the usually indehiscent fruits, but occasionally the perianth is missing and enclosed by 2 accrescent bracteoles instead. An annular to horseshoe-shaped embryo surrounding a copious, mealy perisperm is also characteristic.
Genera of the Chenopodioideae Subfamily
Archiatriplex (1), Atriplex (250+), Axyris (7), Baolia (1), Blitum (12), Ceratocarpus (1), Chenopodiastrum (10), Chenopodium (133), Dysphania (47), Exomis (1), Extriplex (2), Grayia (4), Holmbergia (1), Krascheninnikovia (3), Lipandra (1), Manochlamys (1), Microgynoecium (1), Neomonolepis (1), Oxybasis (5-14), Proatriplex (1), Spinacia (2), Stutzia (2), Suckleya (1), Teloxys (1).
5. Corispermoideae Subfamily
The Corispermoideae are annual herbs without any C₄ photosynthesis (strictly C₃). The inflorescence is spicate, simple, compact, or sometimes globular, and lacking bracteoles. Leaves are mostly alternate, sessile, or petiole-like. Hairs are branched or stellate. The perianth has 0-5 drastically reduced membranous tepals that are not accrescent. The fruit is a characteristic compressed utricle/achene, typically bordered by a scarious or membranous marginal wing and capped with two persistent beak-like style/stigmas.
Genera of the Corispermoideae Subfamily
Agriophyllum (6), Anthochlamys (5), Corispermum (75).
6. Gomphrenoideae Subfamily
The Gomphrenoideae are annual to perennial herbs or subshrubs that often possess laterally compressed, scarious, and often crested/keeled bracteoles that clasp the flower, with a perianth that is free to connate. Anthers are bisporangiate and monothecal, and their filaments are more or less connate into a tube, typically bearing lateral appendages or pseudostaminodes. Their stigma is either capitate or bilobed.
Genera of the Gomphrenoideae Subfamily
Alternanthera (~107), Froelichia (15), Froelichiella (1), Gomphrena (144), Guilleminea (7), Hebanthe (6), Iresine (34), Pedersenia (8), Pfaffia (33), Pseudogomphrena (1), Pseudoplantago (2), Quaternella (3), Tidestromia (6), Xerosiphon (2).
7. Polycnemoideae Subfamily
The Polycnemoideae are annual to perennial herbs or small shrubs that often inhabit saline habitats, and unlike other subfamilies, they exhibit normal secondary growth derived from a single persistent vascular cambium. Leaves are needle-like or succulent, bracts are disarticulating, and bracteoles are often equal or larger than the perianth. Flowers are axillary, the perianth is petaloid but never modified, and the androecium is basally connate with bisporangiate anthers similar to Gomphrenoideae.
Genera of the Polycnemoideae Subfamily
Hemichroa (1), Nitrophila (4), Polycnemum (6), Surreya (2).
8. Salicornioideae Subfamily
The Salicornioideae are succulent, hygrohalophytic annual or perennial herbs, subshrubs, or low shrubs, usually with glabrous and articulated stems. Leaves are opposite to alternate but typically reduced to scales, short lobes, or a rim. The inflorescence is dense, succulent, spike-like, and terminal or lateral. The perianth has 3-4 (2-5) parts, is typically at least partially connate, and is often embedded in the axils of fleshy bracts, where it often becomes spongy, crustaceous, or horny in fruit.
Genera of the Salicornioideae Subfamily
Allenrolfea (3), Arthrocaulon (3), Arthroceras (1), Halocnemum (3), Halopeplis (3), Halostachys (1), Heterostachys (2), Kalidium (8), Mangleticornia (1), Microcnemum (1), Salicornia (53), Tecticornia (48).
9. Salsoideae Subfamily
The Salsoideae are annual or perennial herbs, subshrubs, shrubs, or occasionally small trees with predominantly C₄ photosynthesis. Stems and leaves are often succulent, with branches often articulated and leaves that range from fleshy and terete to reduced to scales, often mucronate or spinescent. Inflorescences are solitary or in small cymules in leafy spikes or panicles, with flowers subtended by a small bract and 2 prominent, fleshy, or scarious bracteoles. Anthers have colored appendages, and their stigmas are flattened. Scarious wings usually develop from the perianth in fruit.
Genera of the Salsoideae Subfamily
Agathophora (1), Akhania (3), Anabasis (30), Arthrophytum (7), Caroxylon (134), Climacoptera (39), Cornulaca (6), Cyathobasis (1), Gamanthus (5?), Girgensohnia (5), Halanthium (5), Halarchon (1), Halimocnemis (21), Halocharis (6), Halogeton (3), Halothamnus (22), Haloxylon (12), Hammada (2), Horaninovia (8), Iljinia (1), Kali (sometimes included in Salsola), Kaviria (9), Lagenantha (2?), Nanophyton (8), Noaea (7), Nucularia (1), Ofaiston (1), Oreosalsola (12), Petrosimonia (11), Piptoptera (1), Pyankovia (3), Rhaphidophyton (1), Salsola (39), Sympegma (2), Traganopsis (1), Traganum (2), Turania (4).
10. Suaedoideae Subfamily
The Suaedoideae are annual to perennial herbs or shrubs with stems that are usually glabrous and rarely jointed. They typically have well-developed, succulent, terete leaves and exhibit three photosynthetic pathways, including C₃ and classical C₄, with novel single-cell C₄ also seen in a few species. The inflorescence is solitary or 2-10-flowered glomerules or cymes with small fleshy flowers and a persistent perianth that becomes accrescent, spongy, succulent, berry-like, or develops wings or lobes. The styles are filiform, and the stigma may be capitate but is papillate all around.
Genera of the Suaedoideae Subfamily
Bienertia (4), Suaeda (94).
Key Differences From Similar Families
The Amaranthaceae are most likely to be confused with the Polygonaceae, which are also weedy herbs that produce small apetalous flowers in dense spikes, but the Polygonaceae all have a characteristic sheathing stipule (ochrea) at their nodes, while the Amaranthaceae always lack stipules of any kind. The Polygonaceae also produce 3-angled or lenticular achenes for fruits.
Occasionally woody Amaranthaceae may be confused with Achatocarpaceae, but the latter always has normal secondary growth instead of only occasionally in the Amaranthaceae (only in the Polycnemoideae). The Amaranthaceae also usually have dry fruits rather than the succulent berries found in the Achatocarpaceae.
Scientific Botanical Description of the Amaranthaceae
Habit & Leaf Form of Amaranthaceae
The Amaranthaceae are mostly annual or perennial (rarely biennial) herbs or subshrubs, some shrubs, and a few lianas and small trees. Stems are often ribbed or distinctly swollen at the nodes. In halophytic and xerophytic lineages (notably Salicornioideae and Salsoloideae), stems frequently become fleshy, articulated/jointed, and photosynthetic, with the leaves reduced. The wood of the perennial stem has a typical anomalous secondary growth, and only the subfamily Polycnemoideae has normal secondary growth.
Leaves may be well-developed, much reduced, or absent, and they may be minute to large. Usually, there is no basal aggregation of leaves, except sometimes in Ptilotus and basal Chenopodioideae. Leaves are arranged alternate or opposite, and they are usually herbaceous but can also be fleshy or membranous. The leaves are simple, petiolate or sessile, connate or not, sheathing or not, and flat or terete; they are also exstipulate and epulvinate. The lamina is either one-veined or pinnately veined. Various hair shapes and features are often present and become diagnostic at the genus and tribal level.
Flowers of Amaranthaceae
The Amaranthaceae are usually hermaphroditic but otherwise may be monoecious, andromonoecious, gynomonoecious, dioecious, androdioecious, or rarely polygamomonoecious. Flowers are solitary, paired (axillary), or aggregated in terminal or axillary cymes, spikes, heads (often with conspicuous persistent bracts and bracteoles), panicles, or thyrses. The hypogynous disk is absent except in Chenopodioideae, where it is usually present; otherwise, nectary tissue is typically found along the margins of the staminal cup or filament tube.
Flowers are small to minute in size and subtended by a primary bract and typically two lateral bracteoles, which may be scarious, persistent, carinate, spinose, or modified into accrescent valves that enclose the pistillate flower.
The perianth is made of tepals that are typically dry, scarious, and papery/chaffy in Amaranthoideae and Gomphrenoideae but are otherwise sepaloid or fleshy or may be vestigial or absent.
When present, there are 3–5 (1–6) tepals that are free or connate basally but may be deeply fused in Salicornioideae. They are typically persistent and often accrescent in fruit, often enclosing the fruit with wings, tubercles, or spines.
Androecium of Amaranthaceae
The androecium consists of 2-5 (1-10) members that are either free of the perianth or slightly adnate to the base of the tepals and always arranged in one whorl. All members are usually unequal except in the Chenopodioideae and some Ptilotus, where they are all equal.
The filaments are characteristically 1 adelphous, with filaments usually connate into a shallow nectariferous cup or fused for most of their length into a staminal tube but are free in some subfamilies.
Pseudostaminodes (sterile teeth, fringed lobes, or petaloid appendages) are often seen in Amaranthoideae and Gomphrenoideae, while in reduced or unisexual flowers, true staminodia may also occur.
Anthers are dorsifixed or basifixed, introrse, and dehisce by longitudinal lateral slits. They are dithecal, 2-locular (tetrasporangiate) in Amaranthoideae, Chenopodioideae, Salsoloideae, Suaedoideae, Salicornioideae, and Betoideae and are monothecal, 1-locular (bisporangiate) in Gomphrenoideae and Polycnemoideae.
Gynoecium of Amaranthaceae
The gynoecium is syncarpous with 2–3 (rarely 4–5) fused carpels forming a strictly unilocular ovary. The ovary is superior and mostly sessile and rarely short-stipitate, but it can sometimes be semi-inferior when sunken into the swollen floral receptacle.
The gynoecium is stylate or non-stylate. When present, there is one primary style with 2-3 (-5) apical branches or 2-5 distinct filiform or subulate styles that are free or partially connate. There are 1-3 stigmas that are of the dry type and papillate.
Placentation is always basal. The vast majority possess a single ovule per locule on an erect or curved funiculus. Ovules are campylotropous to amphitropous, bitegmic, and crassinucellar, non-arillate (though occasionally with a small caruncle/funicular arillode).
Fruit of Amaranthaceae
The Amaranthaceae fruits are mostly dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent utricles or achenes/nutlets, or circumscissile capsules (pyxidium/pyxis). However, there is considerable variability, and they may be fleshy berries or, more often, false berries that form when the accrescent perianth becomes fleshy or when multiple floral bases fuse into a multi-seeded aggregate.
Persistent or accrescent perianths and bracteoles are very common, often forming wings, spongy valves, spines, or horns that assist in seed dispersal.
Seeds are non-endospermic and contain starch. Perisperm is present (abundant, mealy) or sometimes absent in Chenopodioideae.
Global Distribution of Amaranthaceae
The Amaranthaceae family is a temperate to tropical, truly cosmopolitan family missing only from Antarctica and the most extreme Arctic areas. It is widespread, both native and introduced, throughout North America, Central America, the Caribbean, and South America.
Distribution of Amaranthaceae in the Americas
Canadian Amaranthaceae Genera
Amaranthoideae Subfamily in Canada
Achyranthes 1 sp. intro in ON; Amaranthus 20 spp. cosmopolitan genus intro in BC, NT, NB, NS, PE, and NL Island, with some native in AB, SK, MB, ON, and QC.
Camphorosmoideae Subfamily in Canada
Bassia 2 spp. intro to all S provinces except NL, NS, and PE.
Chenopodioideae Subfamily in Canada
Atriplex 18 spp. native to all of Canada and Greenland; Axyris 1 sp. intro to all of S Canada exc. PE and NL; Blitum 4 spp., including 2 native and 2 intro in all of Canada, inc. the Arctic but ephemeral in PE and NL (exc. Labrador); Chenopodiastrum 4 spp., including 1 native to all S provinces exc. NL and 3 spp. intro into S Canada, YT, and NT; Chenopodium 19 spp. cosmopolitan genus native to YT, NT, BC, AB, SK, MB, ON, QC, and NS and intro in NB, PE, NL, NU (and Greenland); Dysphania 4 spp., including 3 intro to BC, ON, QC, NB, and NS and 1 native to ON, QC, and MB; Krascheninnikovia 1 sp. native to YT, AB, SK, and MB; Lipandra monospecific intro to BC, SK, MB, ON, QC, and NB; Oxybasis 6 spp. subcosmopolitan genus including 3 native to all of Canada, including the Arctic but excluding PE and NL, and 3 spp. intro to E Canada; Spinacia 1 sp. intro and ephemeral in YT, NT, AB, and MB; Stutzia 1 sp. NW NAM endemic genus native to AB and SK; Suckleya monospecific N-C NAM endemic genus native to AB and SK.
Corispermoideae Subfamily in Canada
Corispermum 6 spp., mostly native to BC, AB, SK, MB, ON, QC, YT, and NT.
Gomphrenoideae Subfamily in Canada
Froelichia 1 sp. intro to ON.
Polycnemoideae Subfamily in Canada
Polycnemum 3 spp. intro to BC and ON.
Salicornioideae Subfamily in Canada
Salicornia 5 spp. native to all of Canada except Labrador, it’s found in coastal and inland saline areas.
Salsoideae Subfamily in Canada
Salsola (inc. Kali) 3 spp. intro to all S provinces.
Suaedoideae Subfamily in Canada
Suaeda 4 spp. native to all of Canada except for Labrador.
USA Amaranthaceae Genera
Amaranthoideae Subfamily in the USA
Achyranthes 4 spp. including 2 intro to TX, LA, FL, AL, KY, WV, IN, OH, and MD, plus 2 spp. endemic to HI; Aerva 1 sp. native and believed extirpated in HI; Amaranthus 45 spp. cosmopolitan genus both intro and native in all of the USA, including HI and intro in AK; Celosia 4 spp., including 1 native to TX and FL and 3 intro to most of the USA from WI S to MS and all E except MI, GA, SC, RI, MA, NH, ME, and inc. MO, LA, KS, UT; Charpentiera 5 spp. endemic to HI; Digera monospecific sp. intro to NJ; Hermbstaedtia 1 sp. intro to MD.
Betoideae Subfamily in the USA
Aphanisma monospecific SW NAM endemic genus native to CA; Beta 2 spp. introduced to MT, OR, CA, UT, TX, MO, AL, SC, NC, VA, WV, PA, MI, NY, CT, MA, RI, NH, and ME.
Camphorosmoideae Subfamily in the USA
Bassia 6 spp. including 2 native and 4 intro to most of the USA except AR, GA, and FL, and intro to HI; Enchylaena 1 sp. intro to CA; Neokochia 2 spp. W USA endemic genus of OR, CA, ID, NV, MT, WY, CO, UT, AZ, NM, and TX; Spirobassia monospecific intro to PA, NJ, MD, NY, and CT.
Chenopodioideae Subfamily in the USA
Atriplex 94 spp. mostly native with some intro, found in most of the USA, including AK, but excluding AR and TN, and intro HI; Axyris 1 sp. intro to MT, CO, ND, WI, and MO; Blitum 4 spp. inc. 3 native and 1 intro to most of the USA except AR S to LA and E to NC S to FL plus VA, MD, and DE; Chenopodiastrum 2 spp. including 1 native to most of the USA and AK but excluding OR, AZ, AL, GA, SC, and FL where intro and 1 sp. intro scattered throughout USA; Chenopodium ~40 spp. cosmopolitan genus native and intro to all of the USA, inc. AK and HI; Dysphania 11 spp. native and intro to the entire USA, intro in AK and HI; Extriplex 2 spp. SW NAM endemic genus native to CA, inc. 1 narrow endemic; Grayia 4 spp. W USA endemic genus native to MT S to NM and all W; Krascheninnikovia 1 sp. native to W USA from ND S to TX and all states W; Lipandra monospecific genus intro to OR, WI, IL, MI, PA, NJ, NY, CT, and ME; Neomonolepis monospecific former SW NAM endemic genus of CA, NV, and OR; Oxybasis 6 spp., including 2-3 native to most of the USA except the SE states and 2-3 spp. intro to much of the same range but including FL, AL, IL, IN, KY, WV, VA, NC, and VT; Proatriplex monospecific S-C USA endemic of UT, AZ, CO, and NM; Spinacia 1 sp. intro to WA, OR, CA, UT, TX, KS, SC, NC, VA, OH, PA, CT, MA, NY, NH, and ME; Stutzia 2 spp. NW NAM endemic genus native to CA, NV, MT, WY, CO, ND, SD, and NE; Suckleya monospecific N-C NAM endemic genus native to MT, ND, WY, CO, NM, AZ, NE, OK, and TX; Teloxys monospecific intro to MI, NY, and AK.
Corispermoideae Subfamily in the USA
Corispermum 9 spp. native and introduced to most of the USA except ME, VT, NH, PA, MD, DE, WV, VA, TN, NC, SC, LA, MS, AL, and FL, and they are native in AK and extinct in CA.
Gomphrenoideae Subfamily in the USA
Alternanthera 11 spp. including 1 native to FL and the rest introduced to CA, AZ, NM, TX, OK, MO, AR, LA, IL, KY, TN, MS, AL, GA, SC, NC, VA, MD, PA, NJ, NY, and HI; Froelichia 6 spp. native to most of the USA except WA, OR, ID, MT, NV, UT, ND, VT, RI, and ME, including 2 narrow endemics of TX and intro to CA?; Gomphrena 8 spp. native to AZ, NM, TX, LA, FL, GA, and VA, and intro to PA, MD, OH, NY, MA, and HI; Guilleminea 1 sp. native to CA, AZ, NM, TX, OK, CO, SC, MD, AR, and LA; Iresine 6 spp. native to AZ, NM, TX, KS, OK, MO, AR, LA, IL, IN, KY, TN, MS, AL, GA, FL, SC, NC, MD, and PA and intro to HI; Tidestromia 5 spp. native to CA, NV, UT, AZ, CO, NM, TX, LA, OK, KS, SD, MO, IL, and PA.
Polycnemoideae Subfamily in the USA
Nitrophila 2-3 spp. SW NAM endemic genus native to WA, OR, CA, NV, UT, and AZ, including 1 narrow endemic of the Mojave Desert; Polycnemum 1 sp. intro to IN, NY, MD, DE, and NH.
Salicornioideae Subfamily in the USA
Allenrolfea 1 sp. SW NAM endemic genus native to OR, ID, CA, NV, UT, AZ, NM, and TX (the other 2 are endemic to Argentina); Arthroceras monospecific SW NAM endemic genus native to CA; Salicornia 5 spp. native to most of the USA, including AK but excluding AZ, OK, AR, TN, KY, IN, WI, WV, PA, and VT, and it’s introduced in HI and MI and extirpated in IL, found in coastal & inland saline areas.
Salsoideae Subfamily in the USA
Caroxylon 1 sp. intro in CA; Halogeton 1 sp. intro in all of the W USA from MT S to NM and all W, plus SD and NE; Salsola 6 spp. intro to all of the USA, including HI.
Suaedoideae Subfamily in the USA
Suaeda 13 spp. intro and native to most of the USA except IA, AR, TN, WV, and VT, and they are native in AK.
Mexico Amaranthaceae Genera
Amaranthoideae Subfamily in Mexico
Achyranthes 2 spp. inc. 1 intro in all of Mexico and 1 native to S Mexico; Amaranthus ~35 spp. cosmopolitan genus native through all of Mexico and intro to Mexican Pacific Is.; Celosia 3 spp. native to most of Mexico except where intro in Mex, Cd Mex, and Tlx; Chamissoa 1 sp. native in all of Mexico; Cyathula 2 spp. native to Nay, Jal, Col, Gro, Mch, Oax, Chp, Pue, Ver, Tab, Cam, QR, and Yuc; Lagrezia 1 sp. Mexico endemic of Nay, Jal, Col, Mch, Gro, Oax, Chp, Tab, Cam, Yuc, and QR (most of genus is Madagascar); Pleuropetalum 2 spp. native to N+SE+SE Mexico, Ver.
Betoideae Subfamily in Mexico
Aphanisma monospecific SW NAM endemic genus native to BC, BCS?, and the Mexican Pacific Is.; Beta 2 spp. introduced to BC, BCS, Son, and Sin.
Camphorosmoideae Subfamily in Mexico
Bassia 2 spp. intro to BC, BCS, Son, and Sin.
Chenopodioideae Subfamily in Mexico
Atriplex ~30 spp. native through all of Mexico, including Mexican Pacific Is.; Blitum 4 spp., inc. 2 native and 2 intro to BCN, BCS, Son, Sin, Chi, NL, Tam, Dgo, Zac, SLP, Gto, Qro?, and Hgo?; Chenopodiastrum 1 sp. intro to BC, BCS, Son, Sin, Nay, Jal, Col, Mch, Gro, and Oax; Chenopodium ~20 spp. cosmopolitan genus both native and intro throughout all of Mexico; Dysphania 8 spp., inc. 7 native and 1 intro, found in all of Mexico and intro Mexican Pacific Is.; Extriplex 1 sp. SW NAM endemic genus native to BCN and BCS?; Krascheninnikovia 1 sp. native to N Mexico in BC, BCS, Son, Sin, Chi, Coa, NL, Tam, Dgo, Zac, Qro, Ags, Gto, and SLP; Neomonolepis monospecific former SW NAM endemic native to BCN and BCS?; Oxybasis 4 spp. subcosmopolitan genus, including 2 native (1 endemic) to Chi, Coa, NL, Tam, Dgo, Zac, Ags, SLP, Gto, Qro, Hgo, Mex, Cd Mex, Mor, Nay, Jal, Col, Gro, Mch, and Oax, and 2 spp. intro to BC, BCS, Son, and Sin.
Corispermoideae Subfamily in Mexico
Corispermum 1 sp. native to Chi, Dgo, Zac, SLP, Hgo, Gto, Qro, NL, Tam, and Coa.
Gomphrenoideae Subfamily in Mexico
Alternanthera ~6 spp. native throughout all of Mexico; Froelichia 6 spp. native throughout all of Mexico, including 1 narrow endemic of BCS; Gomphrena ~16 spp. native to all of Mexico; Guilleminea 2 spp. native to N+SW+C Mexico; Hebanthe 1 sp. mostly a neoendemic genus native to most of Mexico exc. the NW+C; Iresine ~20 spp. native to all of Mexico, including many endemics; Pfaffia 1 sp. mostly a neoendemic genus native to S Mexico in Nay, Jal, Col, Mch, Gro, Oax, Chp, Cam, Tab, QR, and Yuc; Tidestromia 6 spp. NAM & Caribbean endemic genus native to BC, BCS, Son, Sin, Chi, Coa, NL, Tam, Dgo, Gto, Qro, SLP, Hgo, and Ags, inc. 1 narrow endemic of Coa.
Polycnemoideae Subfamily in Mexico
Nitrophila 1 sp. native to NW Mexico.
Salicornioideae Subfamily in Mexico
Allenrolfea 1 sp. native to BCN, BCS, Son, Sin, Chi, NL, Tam, Dgo, and SLP (other 2 spp. endemic to Argentina); Arthroceras monospecific SW NAM endemic genus native to BC, BCS, Son, and Sin; Salicornia 4 spp. native to most of Mexico except Pue., found in coastal & inland saline areas.
Salsoideae Subfamily in Mexico
Salsola ~6 spp. intro to BC, BCS, Son, Sin, Chi, Coa, NL, Tam, Dgo, Zac, Gto, Qro, and Ags.
Suaedoideae Subfamily in Mexico
Suaeda ~17 spp. native in all of Mexico, including the Mexican Pacific Is.
Neotropical Amaranthaceae Genera
Amaranthoideae Subfamily in the Neotropics
Achyranthes 2 spp. including 1 intro to CAM (exc. Costa Rica), Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Aruba, Antilles (exc. Cayman Is.), SW Caribbean, Galapagos, and tropical SAM S to Peru, Bolivia, and C+SE Brazil (exc. Ecuador), plus 1 native to Cuba, parts of the Antilles, Guatemala, Colombia, and Venezuela; Amaranthus ~45 spp. cosmopolitan genus native throughout the Caribbean, the Antilles, Trinidad-Tobago, CAM, all of SAM, and Galapagos and is intro to Bermuda and Juan Fernandez Is.; Celosia 3-5 spp. native to Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Bahamas, Leeward & Windward Is., Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Brazil, and are intro in Belize, Cayman Is., Galapagos, Trinidad-Tobago, C Brazil, Bolivia, NE Argentina, and Paraguay; Chamissoa 3 spp. native to the Greater Antilles (exc. Cayman Is.), CAM S through tropical SAM to N Argentina exc. French Guiana and N Chile; Cyathula 3 spp. inc. 2 native to CAM, Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, Trinidad-Tobago, Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, and 1 intro to Puerto Rico, Leeward & Windward Is., Venezuelan Antilles, French Guiana, Suriname, and Guyana; Hebanthodes monospecific endemic of Peru; Herbstia monospecific E SAM endemic of E+S Brazil, Paraguay, and NE Argentina; Lecosia 2 spp. narrow endemic genus of E Brazil; Pleuropetalum 3 spp. native to CAM, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Galapagos (1 endemic).
Betoideae Subfamily in the Neotropics
Beta 2 spp. intro to Honduras, Cuba, the Cayman Islands, the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Ecuador, N & C Chile, Juan Fernández Is., Argentina, and Uruguay.
Camphorosmoideae Subfamily in the Neotropics
Bassia 1-2 spp. intro to C. Chile and N. Argentina; Maireana 1 sp. intro in N Chile, Desventurados Is.
Chenopodioideae Subfamily in the Neotropics
Atriplex ~20 spp. native to Honduras, Bermuda, Antilles (exc. Windward Is.), SW Caribbean, Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, and S Brazil; Blitum 1 sp. intro to N Argentina; Chenopodiastrum 1 sp. intro to Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Bermuda, Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Antilles (exc. Cayman Is, Windward Is.), Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, C+E Brazil, Chile, N Argentina, and Uruguay; Chenopodium ~20 spp. cosmopolitan genus native to Honduras, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Chile, Argentina, Paraguay, and S Brazil, and intro to C+E Brazil, Bermuda, Bahamas, Cuba, Dominican Republic, and Trinidad-Tobago; Dysphania 15 spp. native to CAM, Bermuda, and all of SAM except Ecuador, French Guiana, Suriname, and Guyana, where it is now intro, and also intro to the Bahamas, Antilles, SW Caribbean, Trinidad-Tobago, Galapagos, and Juan Fernandez Is.; Holmbergia monospecific C SAM endemic genus of Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, and N Argentina; Oxybasis 5 spp. subcosmopolitan genus, including 3 native (2 endemic) of Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and NW+S Argentina and 2 spp. intro to Argentina; Spinacia 1 sp. intro to Hispaniola and Cayman Is.
Gomphrenoideae Subfamily in the Neotropics
Alternanthera ~100 spp. native to Bermuda, the Bahamas, Turks-Caicos, Aruba, the Antilles, CAM, and all of SAM, including Galapagos, excluding S Chile; Froelichia 8 spp. native to Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil (1 endemic), Ecuador, the Galapagos (2 endemic), Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay (1 endemic), Uruguay, and N Argentina; Froelichiella monospecific endemic to C Brazil; Gomphrena ~90 spp. native to all of CAM and SAM, exc. S Chile, plus much of the Antilles region; Guilleminea 4 spp. native to Cuba (1 endemic), Hispaniola, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, C Brazil, Paraguay, N Argentina, and Uruguay (1 endemic); Hebanthe 6 spp. mostly neoendemic genus native to CAM and SAM S to N Argentina, exc. N Chile, Uruguay; Iresine ~20 spp. native throughout all of CAM, the Bahamas, Antilles (exc. Aruba and Netherlands Antilles), and tropical SAM to N Argentina (exc. French Guiana and N Chile); Pedersenia 8 spp. neoendemic genus of Honduras S to Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Paraguay, and N Brazil, plus Puerto Rico and the Windward Is.; Pfaffia ~26 spp. neoendemic genus native to S Mexico, Haiti, Leeward & Windward Is., Venezuelan Antilles, Trinidad-Tobago, Costa Rica, and tropical SAM S to N Argentina (except N Chile); Pseudoplantago 2 spp. SAM endemic genus of Venezuela (1 endemic) and S Brazil + NE Argentina (1); Quaternella 3 spp. Brazil endemic genus (exc. N Brazil); Tidestromia 1 sp. native to the Dominican Republic; Xerosiphon 2 spp. endemic to most of Brazil except the south.
Polycnemoideae Subfamily in the Neotropics
Nitrophila 2 spp. SAM endemic genus native to Argentina and N Chile.
Salicornioideae Subfamily in the Neotropics
Allenrolfea 2 spp. Argentina endemic genus; Heterostachys 2 spp. neoendemic genus of Hispaniola, Colombia, Venezuela, Paraguay, and Argentina, including 1 narrow endemic of Argentina at the N limit of Patagonia; Mangleticornia monospecific endemic of Ecuador and Peru; Salicornia 5-6 spp. native in coastal and inland saline areas of the Bahamas, Turks and Caicos, Antilles (exc. Windward Is.), Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, S. Brazil, Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay.
Salsoideae Subfamily in the Neotropics
Salsola 2-3 spp. intro to Uruguay, C+S Chile, and Argentina.
Suaedoideae Subfamily in the Neotropics
Suaeda 7-10 spp. native to the Bahamas, Turks and Caicos, Cuba, Hispaniola, Leeward Is., Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina, and extinct or extirpated in the Juan Fernandez Is.
Patagonia Amaranthaceae Genera
Amaranthoideae Subfamily in Patagonia
Amaranthus 4 spp. cosmopolitan genus native to C+S Argentina and C+S Chile.
Betoideae Subfamily in Patagonia
Beta 1 sp. intro to C Chile and S Argentina.
Camphorosmoideae Subfamily in Patagonia
Bassia 1 sp. intro to C Chile and S Argentina.
Chenopodioideae Subfamily in Patagonia
Atriplex 1 sp. native throughout Patagonia and intro to the Falkland Islands; Blitum 2 spp. inc. 1 intro and 1 endemic to Patagonia; Chenopodiastrum 1 sp. intro to C+S Chile and S Argentina; Chenopodium 1 sp. cosmopolitan genus native throughout Patagonia; Dysphania 1 sp. native to all of Patagonia; Oxybasis 4 spp. subcosmopolitan genus, inc. 3 native to C+S Chile, S Argentina, and the Falkland Islands, and 1 sp. intro to Patagonia.
Gomphrenoideae Subfamily in Patagonia
Alternanthera 1 sp. native to just N of Patagonia in the mountains and N of Bahia Blanca, S Argentina; Gomphrena 1-2 spp. native to S Argentina.
Polycnemoideae Subfamily in Patagonia
Nitrophila 1 sp. SAM endemic genus of S. Argentina.
Salicornioideae Subfamily in Patagonia
Allenrolfea 1 sp. Argentina endemic genus native to S Argentina; Heterostachys 1 sp. narrow endemic of Buenos Aires, Mendoza & Rio Negro, Argentina, at the N limit of Patagonia; Salicornia 2 spp. native throughout all of Patagonia in salt marshes and lagoons.
Salsoideae Subfamily in Patagonia
Salsola 1-2 spp. intro throughout Patagonia.
Suaedoideae Subfamily in Patagonia
Suaeda 1 sp. native throughout Patagonia and the Falkland Islands.
Additional Information and References
- Visit Lyrae’s Dictionary of Botanical Terms to learn the terminology of botanists. Note that if you hover over most of the words in the articles, you can also get definitions from them there.
- Willis, Lyrae (Unpublished). Plant Families of North America. This is where all of the family descriptions come from. Below should be most of my references for this, as well as personal observations in North America.
- Canadensys: Acadia University, Université de Montréal Biodiversity Centre, University of Toronto Mississauga, University of British Columbia. http://data.canadensys.net/explorer (accessed 2020 – current)
- Delta: Watson, L., and Dallwitz, M.J. (1992+). The Families of Flowering Plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval. Version: 2nd May 2020. delta-intkey.com. Accessed spring through fall of 2020.
- Flora of North America (FNA) (1993+). https://floranorthamerica.org/Main_Page.
- GBIF.org (2020), GBIF Home Page. Available from: https://www.gbif.org
- Hernández-Ledesma, P., Berendsohn, W. G., Borsch, T., Mering, S. v., Akhani, H., Arias, S., Castañeda-Noa, I., Eggli, U., Eriksson, R., Flores-Olvera, H., Fuentes-Bazán, S., Kadereit, G., Klak, C., Korotkova, N., Nyffeler R., Ocampo G., Ochoterena, H., Oxelman, B., Rabeler, R. K., Sanchez, A., Schlumpberger, B. O. & Uotila, P. 2015. A taxonomic backbone for the global synthesis of species diversity in the angiosperm order Caryophyllales. Willdenowia 45(3): 281–383. DOI: 10.3372/wi.45.45301
- Kadereit, G. & Freitag, H. 2011. Molecular phylogeny of Camphorosmeae (Camphorosmoideae, Chenopodiaceae): Implications for biogeography, evolution of C4-photosynthesis and taxonomy. Taxon 60(1): 51–78. DOI: 10.1002/tax.601006.
- Naturalista: CONABIO http://www.naturalista.mx (Accessed 2020–current).
- Neotropikey: Milliken, W., Klitgård, B., & Baracat, A. eds. (2009+). Neotropikey: Interactive key and information resources for flowering plants of the Neotropics. www.kew.org/neotropikey.com (accessed 2020 – current).
- Patagonia Wildflowers: Wildflower Identification Site. https://patagoniawildflowers.org/ Accessed throughout the fall of 2020.
- POWO (2019). Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet: http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/
- Stevens, P. F. (2001+). Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 14, July 2017 [more or less continuously updated since]. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/
- USDA, NRCS. 2020. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 2 June 2020). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC, USA; accessed throughout the fall of 2020.
- WFO (2022): World Flora Online. Published on the Internet: http://www.worldfloraonline.org. Accessed Spring 2022 – current
Copyright Information
The information and the photos on this site are free to use for educational purposes, with proper attribution. For other uses, please contact me first.
You can cite this site as follows: Willis, Lyrae (2020+). Lyrae’s Nature Blog – Plant Families of North America. https://lyraenatureblog.com/. Accessed [Enter Date].
